Fodder Tree

EVALUATION OF MULTIPURPOSE FODDER TREES
IN NEPAL
A thesis presented in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
in
Forestry
Institute of Natural Resources
Massey University
Palmerston North, New Zealand
Bhoj Bahadur Kshatri
2007
i
Abstract
This PhD thesis consists of nine chapters describing aspects of the subsistence
farms of western Nepal in general, and a need-based evaluation of
multipurpose fodder trees (MFT) as a source of dry-season forage for ruminants
in particular, as a basis for mitigating the current high rate of land degradation
and loss of productivity in livestock production systems in the region.
Understanding the complex farming systems that provide a living for 65% of the
27.1 million people in Nepal is the key to designing effective programmes of
research and development. Evaluation methods include review of past work,
farmers group workshops to identify current practice in the use of MFT in Nepal,
studies on biomass production of Artocarpus lakoocha and Ficus glaberrima
trees older than 50 years in Nepal and the propagation of F. benjamina,
comparison of the feeding preferences of sheep for alternative browse species,
and study of the nutritive value of alternative forage diets for lactating buffalo.
Reviews showed 2.2 million cattle and 1 million buffalo are an extra burden to
steep land where productivity is declining at the rate of 1.25% per year.
Indigenous knowledge identified Ficus glaberrima with its three varieties
(Maghe, Chaite and Jethe), A. lakoocha, F. benjamina and Bassia butyracea as
the best four MFT for renovating degraded lands. A survey study showed
significantly higher dry matter (DM) production by F. glaberrima than A.
lakoocha (154 vs 91 kg DM /tree/year) during dry periods at low altitude (800 -
1000m). There was no significant difference in production of fat - corrected milk
(FCM ) between buffalos eating A. lakoocha, F.glaberrima or a diet of 53%
straw and 47% F. glaberrima (DM basis). Metabolisable energy balance (MJ
ME/day) was greater in Artocarpus than Ficus, with the mixed diet intermediate
(+1.60, -0.34 and -12.94 MJ ME/buffalo/day respectively, relative to
requirements, P=0.0318). When fed together in an indoor trial, poplar (48% =
106 g DM/sheep/day) and willow (43% = 95 g DM/sheep/day) were preferred to
Ficus benjamina (8% = 18 g DM/sheep/day) by sheep, reflecting the greater
maturity and structural strength of leaves of Ficus.
These results are used to develop recommendations for choice of MFT species
and management strategies to improve the sustainability and productivity of
livestock systems incorporating fodder trees.
Keywords: Artocarpus lakoocha, Ficus glaberrima, Ficus benjamina, rice straw,
buffalo, sheep, metabolisable energy, multipurpose fodder trees.
ii
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Dedication
This PhD thesis is dedicated to Professor John Hodgson,
for his unconditional love and effort to develop pasture
and fodder systems in the developing world
iv
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank all three of my supervisors; Professor Dr Peter D Kemp and
Professor Dr John Hodgson of Massey University, New Zealand, and Associate
Professor Dr Nabaraj Devkota of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science
(IAAS), Rampur, Nepal. All three played a major role in this PhD research
conducted in Nepal and in New Zealand. My PhD endeavour would not have been
possible without their generous assistance.
Special thanks to Professor Peter R. English and Mr Ewen Macpharson, University
of Aberdeen, Scotland, UK; Dr Ian M Brookes, Institute of Food, Nutrition and
Human Health; Associate Professor Dr Cory Matthew, Institute of Natural
Resources (INR); Dr Sam Peterson, (IVABS); Mr Greg Arnold, Dr Alasdair Noble
and Mr Tim Ball, Institute of Information Science and Technology; Dr Bruce
Mackay, INR.
Thanks are also due to support staff, particularly Mr Mark A. Osborne, Mr Tom
Dodd, Ms Lesley Taylor, Mr Steven Ray, Erica Van Reenen (sheep trial), Mr
Lindsay Sylva, INR secretary/administrator Ms Denise Brunskill, Denise Stewart
and PhD researcher Mr Ben Van Hooydonk INR.
Thanks to all my friends for their help and healthy criticism; Dr Anil Anal, Dr Entin
Daningsih, Dr Baisen Zhang, Dr Zulkefly Sulaiman, Dr Yang-Gyu Ku, Dr Tehseen
Aslam, Zulfiqar Haidar Butt, Zaker Hussain, Edmundo Viegas, Mr Shrawan
Bhandari, Mr Sujan Gurung, Ms Girija Page, Ms Lena Ulber, Bruce Teulon,
Rosemary Teulon, Kevin and Ann Bellringer. Special thanks to Mr. Diwas Khatri,
Postgraduate Student, Massey University for his efforts in computer work. Thanks
to Massey University, English Language teacher Ms Sarah Pettus for proof reading.
Buffalo research in Nepal was supported by my family members, relatives,
neighbours and villagers. Thanks to, Amrita, Anjana, Indira, Kalpana, Anju, Laxmi,
Saraswati, Sirjana, Parbati, Khum Bdr Adhikary, and Bir B. Adhikari who were
engaged in day to day milking, fodder collection and transportation, and buffalo trial
shed construction. Words cannot express my gratitude to them.
Thanks are also due to Mr D. B. Singh, Farm Manager, Lampatan Pokhara, Mr B.
B. Gurung, Dr S. B. Singh, Dr D. B Subba, P. P Khatiwada, B. R Banstola, Bhola
Shankar Shrestha, Shiva Aryal and RajaRam Bhandari (LAC) for their valuable
support and laboratory facilities.
The New Zealand government is greatly acknowledged for selecting me as NZAID
scholar to pursue my PhD study for the year 2003 to 2007. Similarly, I am very
much grateful to the scholarship management team for providing me Pastoral
Science Scholarship for 2004, Helen E. Akers PhD Scholarship 2005 and 2006 and
John Hodgson Pastoral Science Scholarship 2006.
My family particularly my wife Maya and son Ajit deserve special thanks for all they
have done to help me in the completion of my research work.
Bhoj Bahadur Kshatri
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Table of Contents
Abstract ...................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements.........................................................................................iii
Table of Contents ..........................................................................................vii
List of Tables ................................................................................................xiii
List of Figures ............................................................................................... xv
List of Plates .................................................................................................xvi
Abbreviations and Glossary.........................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 ..................................................................................... 1
General Introduction ....................................................................................... 1
Chapter 2 ..................................................................................... 3
Literature Review............................................................................................ 3
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 3
2.2 Global scenario of tree fodders................................................................. 8
2.3 Role of browse plants in Nepal ................................................................. 9
2.4 Ancient history of silviculture .................................................................... 9
2.5 Modern history of silviculture development in Nepal............................... 10
2.6 Ecosystem where invasive trees find it hard to grow .............................. 11
2.7 Dynamic niche of livestock production.................................................... 12
2.8 Need for professional development in the field of tree fodders............... 13
2.9 Review of past work................................................................................ 13
2.10 Reasoning for the selection of fodder tree species ............................... 15
2.11 Ficus species ........................................................................................ 15
2.11.1 Distribution of Ficus species......................................................15
2.11.2 Agronomy of F. benjamina and F. glaberrima ...........................16
2.11.3 Species of Ficus ........................................................................19
2.11.4 Taxonomy .................................................................................19
2.11.5 Naturalisation of F. glaberrima.....................................................19
2.11.6 Nutritional study of Ficus fodder ................................................20
2.11.7 Primary planting site..................................................................20
2.11.8 Slope land utilisation .................................................................21
2.11.9 Existing variation permits selection ...........................................21
2.11.10 Altitude and fodder tree species ..............................................21
viii
2.11.11 Source of planting material for hill farmers ..............................22
2.11.12 Propagation of Ficus species ..................................................22
2.11.13 Root Mechanism and soil conservation...................................23
2.11.14 Mini-nurseries in remote areas................................................24
2.11.15 Biomass production.................................................................24
2.11.16 Leaf morphology .....................................................................26
2.12 Summary and conclusions.................................................................... 26
Chapter 3 ....................................................................................33
Invasive tree Ficus glaberrima characteristics and fodder research
priorities set by users’ participatory workshops in Nepal...................... 33
3.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 33
3.1.1 Background .................................................................................35
3.1.2 Collapsing hill farm ecosystem: A review............................................. 35
3.1.3 Evaluation of fodder trees by chemical means............................36
3.1.4 Role of forest resources and stall feeding animals in the
hills .................................................................................36
3.1.5 Lack of feed and consequences at small farm level....................37
3.2 Methodology ........................................................................................... 39
3.4 Results .................................................................................................. 41
3.4.1 Background .................................................................................41
3.4.2 Inventory of multipurpose fodder species....................................42
3.4.3 Research recommendations .......................................................47
3.5 Discussion .............................................................................................. 48
3.5.1 Use of forage trees by farmers....................................................48
3.5.2 Relevance of invasive species in restoring productivity of
degraded hill farms..................................................................51
3.5.3 Farmers views on time of lopping................................................54
3.6 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 55
Chapter 4 ....................................................................................57
Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping ..................... 57
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 57
4.1.1 Reasoning for the selection of fodder tree species .....................58
4.1.2 Location ............................................................................................... 59
ix
4.1.3 Soils .................................................................................59
4.1.4 Climate .................................................................................59
4.2 Methods.................................................................................................. 60
4.2.1 Altitude stratifications ..................................................................60
4.2.2 Survey in Pokhara Nepal.............................................................61
4.2.3 Experimental design....................................................................62
4.2.4 Data analysis...............................................................................62
4.2.5 Lopping period.............................................................................62
4.2.6 Quantification of edible fodder biomass per tree .........................63
4.2.7 Identifying the age of the trees for research ................................63
4.2.8 Measurements of tree components .............................................63
4.2.8.2 Branch extension......................................................................64
4.2.8.3 Height of the fodder tree...........................................................64
4.2.8.4 Edible biomass production per tree ..........................................65
4.2.8.5 Crude protein (CP) production per tree ....................................65
4.2.9 Manpower for lopping..................................................................66
4.2.10 Transporting the browse by farmers..........................................66
4.3 Results ................................................................................................... 67
4.3.1 Diameter at breast height (DBH) + Carrying diameter.................68
4.3.2 Height of the tree.........................................................................69
4.3.3 Biomass production (Dry matter (DM) kg/tree) ............................70
4.3.4 Crude protein (CP) production per tree .......................................71
4.4 Discussion .............................................................................................. 72
4.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 77
Chapter 5 ................................................................................... 79
Sheep preferences for Ficus benjamina, Poplar and Willow......................... 79
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 79
5.2 Material and methods ............................................................................. 80
5.2.1 Forage preference.......................................................................80
5.2.2 Rate of intake ..............................................................................83
5.2.3 Tensile strength of leaves ...........................................................84
5.2.4 Chemical analysis .......................................................................85
5.2.5 Statistical analysis .......................................................................86
5.2.6 Tensile strength (Newton/leaf).....................................................87
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5.3 Results .................................................................................................. 87
5.3.1 Intake .................................................................................87
5.3.2 Rate of intake ..............................................................................88
5.3.3 Nutritive values............................................................................90
5.4 Discussion .............................................................................................. 91
5.4.1 Digestibility comparisons.............................................................94
5.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 95
Chapter 6 ....................................................................................97
Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder; milk production of water
buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) eating mixed diets of F. glaberrima, A.
lakoocha and rice straw (Oryza savita) in the mountain ecosystem
of Nepal................................................................................................ 97
6.1 Introduction............................................................................................. 97
6.2 Methods.................................................................................................. 97
6.2.1 Location .................................................................................98
6.2.2 Collection of fodder tree foliage...................................................98
6.2.3 Experimental animals and management ...................................102
6.2.4 Components of concentrate ration ............................................103
6.2.5 Khole (Buffalo porridge) ............................................................103
6.2.6 Feeding of Artocarpus and Ficus ..............................................103
6.2.7 Dung collection..........................................................................104
6.2.8 Body weight of lactating buffaloes.............................................106
6.2.9 Chemical analysis .....................................................................106
6.2.10 Milk sampling and analysis......................................................107
6.2.11 Nutritional value of diets ..........................................................108
6.2.12 Statistical analysis...................................................................109
6.2.13 Offered and refused diet..........................................................110
6.3 Results ................................................................................................ 111
6.3.1 Nutritive values..........................................................................111
6.3.2 Live weight changes..................................................................112
6.3.3 Voluntary Intake of dry matter ...................................................112
6.3.4 Milk yield and composition ........................................................113
6.3.5 Metabolisable energy balance...................................................113
6.3.6 Crude protein balance...............................................................114
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6.4 Discussion ............................................................................................ 115
6.4.1 Feeding Practices in Nepal .......................................................115
6.4.2 Feeding period effects...............................................................117
6.4.3 Diet contrasts ............................................................................117
6.4.4 Dietary crude protein and secondary metabolites .....................122
6.5 Conclusions .......................................................................................... 123
Chapter 7 ................................................................................. 125
Vegetative propagation of F. benjamina using non-sterile sand and
hardwood cuttings .............................................................................. 125
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 125
7.2 Material and methods ........................................................................... 126
7.2.1 Preparation of cuttings ..............................................................126
7.2.2 Statistical analysis .....................................................................127
7.3 Results ................................................................................................. 127
7.4 Discussion ............................................................................................ 128
Chapter 8 ................................................................................. 129
Leaf survival and biomass production of F. benjamina containerised in a
glasshouse. ........................................................................................ 129
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 129
8.2 Material and methods ........................................................................... 129
8.2.1 Leaf senescence .......................................................................130
8.2.2 Statistical analysis .....................................................................131
8.2.3 Biomass production...................................................................131
8.3 Results ................................................................................................. 132
8.3.2 Biomass and leaf number..........................................................134
8.4 Discussion ............................................................................................ 135
8.5 Conclusions .......................................................................................... 136
Chapter 9 ................................................................................. 137
General discussion and conclusions........................................................... 137
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 137
9.2 Results of the review of past work in Nepal .......................................... 137
9.2.1 User farmers’ experience on local MFT.....................................138
9.2.2 Suitability at 3 ecological strata and biomass yield of MFT .......139
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9.2.3 Sheep preferences....................................................................139
9.2.4 Lactational response of buffaloes eating MFT...........................140
9.2.5 Ability to propagate MFT on low cost sand media and
effect on leaf age. ..................................................................142
9.2.6 Storing browse ........................................................................142
9.3 Future research need ........................................................................... 143
References ..................................................................................147
Appendices..................................................................................165
Appendix 1. Intake g DM/Sheep (t1, t2 & t3 represents 576 events of
15 min each) ...................................................................................... 165
Annex 2. Maps related to the study ........................................................ 167
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List of Tables
Table 2.1 Density of livestock population (animal km2) (calculated from
MOAC, 1998/99 data). ......................................................5
Table 2.2 Dry matter (DM) production potential of various feed resource
components based on six categories of mountain ecosystem
in Nepal (Rajbhandari et al., 1981).................................................. 6
Table 2.3 Result of PRA and measurement of ten tree fodder (F.
glaberrima) above the age of 50 years located at an elevation
of 900mas in the mountain ecosystem of western Pokhara,
Nepal (Kshatri, B. B., 2001) ....................................................24
Table 3.1 Livelihood strategies of small farmers: problems and
consequences ............................................................................... 41
Table 3.2 Types and number of fodder trees per farm .................................. 42
Table 3.3 Host trees of F. glaberrima in forest and farms while in
epiphytic stage .............................................................................. 43
Table 3.4 Calendar of availability of tree leaves at Sunpadali, Kalika-6,
Kaski, Nepal ................................................................................. 46
Table 3.5 Linkage of Nepali and English calendar in relation to fodder
lopping cycle and months in dry seasons in the northern
hemisphere, Nepal ........................................................................ 47
Table 3.6 Purposely selected multipurpose fodder tree species and
criteria applied by farmers for selection......................................... 48
Table 3.7 Farmers’ perception of the time of lopping within a day and
quality of fodder............................................................................. 55
Table 3.8 Practical research ideas identified during farmers’
participatory workshops for evaluation of fodder trees .................. 55
Table 4.1 Trial arrangement in split plots with three blocks (altitudes)
for evaluation of edible biomass production from 50 years old
trees growing in 30o – 70o slope land between 800 – 1440 m
(metre above sea level = m) in the hill farming system of
Nepal ................................................................................. 62
Table 4.2 Diameter at breast height (DBH) of A. lakoocha and F.
glaberrima at different altitudes in a hill farming ecosystem of
Nepal ................................................................................. 67
Table 4.3 Canopy radius of A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima. ............................ 68
Table 4.4 Tree height of A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima................................ 69
xiv
Table 4.5 Edible biomass production of fodder trees (DM kg/trees). ............ 70
Table 4.6 Crude protein (CP) production kg/tree/year. ................................. 70
Table 4.7 Dependent variables, means, R-square values and coefficient
of variance calculated by SAS GLM procedure (n=54) using
independent variable altitude and species (altitude = high, mid
and low and species = Artocarpus and Ficus)............................... 71
Table 4.8 Canopy radius, tree/ha, perimeter, canopy area, and kg
DM/tree of A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima in the hill farming
ecosystem of Nepal....................................................................... 72
Table 5.1 Ficus, Poplar and Willow trees required for trial. ........................... 81
Table 5.2 Preferential intake of fodder (gDM/sheep/45 mins). ...................... 88
Table 5.3 Intake of Ficus alone (gDM/sheep± SEM)..................................... 88
Table 5.4 Rate of browse intake in 15 x 3 minutes. ...................................... 89
Table 5.5 Tensile strength (Newton/leaf) required for breaking leaves ......... 89
Table 5.6 Approximate values of browse used in the experiment. ................ 90
Table 6.1 Daily timetable during experiment with lactating buffaloes in
on-farm conditions (Clean water was available to all buffaloes
at all times) ............................................................................... 100
Table 6.2 Date of calving and purchasing the milking buffaloes and milk
yield (L/buffalo) on the day of arrival at the site of experiment .... 102
Table 6.3 Experimental diet eaten by lactating buffaloes. ........................... 104
Table 7.1 Effect of sand (coarse and non-sterilised S), commercial plant
growth media (CM) and 50% mixture of sand and commercial
media (M) on root and shoot growth of F. benjamina cuttings
in a glasshouse ........................................................................... 128
Table 8.1 Standard deviation and significance of leaf survival rate
(Figure 8.1) ............................................................................... 133
Table 8.2 Leaf survival rate (slope of leaf fall/day) for F. benjamina
growing in three media in pots in a glass house.......................... 133
Table 8.3 Height, canopy diameter and basal diameter of F. benjamina
trees ............................................................................. 1333
Table 8.4 Biomass production (g DM/tree) in glasshouse conditions.......... 134
Table 8.5 Pearson correlation coefficient among variables measured on
F. benjamina. Levels of significance are indicated in italics ........ 134
xv
List of Figures
Figure 2. 1 Percentage of ruminants feed availability to requirements in
Nepal Figure (Modified from Rajbhandary et al., 1981)................... 7
Figure 5.1 Relationship between tensile strength (Newton/leaf) and dry
matter intake by trial sheep. .......................................................... 89
Figure 6.1 An example of offered and refused diet one of two buffaloes
under straw diet receiving (constant fresh twigs of Ficus =
10 kg daily) 47% DM of diet + 53 % straw................................... 110
Figure 8.1 Leaf survival rate of evergreen tree F. benjamina over 910
days in glasshouse conditions. .................................................. 132
xvi
List of Plates
Plate 2.1 Four Ficus glaberrima tree heights 10m to 18m above
ground Kalika-6 Sunpadalim, Kaski, Pokhara,
Nepal.(Photograph by Kshatri, B., 2002)...................................... 17
Plate 2.2 Summer greenery in farming system of Kalika-6 Sunpadali,
Kaski, Pokhara, Nepal. (Photograph by Kshatri, B. B.,
2002). ................................................................................. 17
Plate 4.1 Research site, Sunpadali village in Kalika-6, Pokhara,
Nepal located at 800 to 900 masl. Sparsely planted fodder
trees can be seen in terraced farm................................................ 59
Plate 4.2 Silvipastoral system facing Southeast in western hills of
Arba-6, Amalachaur, Kaski, Pokhara Nepal.................................. 61
Plate 4.3 Carrying A. lakoocha fodder from tree to buffalo shed. ................... 67
Plate 4.4 Rice growing under canopy of F. glaberrima, Kalika-6,
Sunpadali, Kaski, Pokhara Nepal.................................................. 76
Plate 5.1 Sheep No 15 is browsing Willow with Ficus and Poplar
within 70 cm and the sheep has easy access to all three
species of browse in trial............................................................... 82
Plate 5.2 Weighing F. benjamina branch using electronic balance
("Mettler PE22" (max = 24 kg, precision = 0.1 g)........................... 84
Plate 5.3 F. benjamina leaves being tested using TA.XT Plus,
Texture analyser stable micro system at Institute of Food,
Nutrition and Human Health, Massey University, New
Zealand ................................................................................. 85
Plate 5.4 Easily distinguishable size of fodder tree leaves of F.
benjamina, Poplar and Willow fresh branches ready for
intake trial ................................................................................. 93
Plate 6. 1 Gunny-bags are hardly visible at the hind-quarters of
resting buffaloes after feeding and morning milking. ................... 105
Plate 6.2 Buffaloes arranged to face away from the gutter for easy
observation and collection of dung.............................................. 105
Plate 8.1 Transplanting to 20-litre bucket................................................... 130
Plate 8.2 Marking the leaves for the leaf age study.................................... 131
Plate 8.1 Transplanting to 20-litre bucket................................................... 130
Plate 8.2 Marking the leaves for the leaf age study.................................... 131
xvii
Abbreviations and Glossary
ADP Asian Development Bank
AGDP Agricultural Gross Domestic products
CBS Central Bureau of Statistics
DFAMS Department of Food and Agricultural Marketing Services
DLS Department of Livestock Services
DOF Department of Forest
DSWC Department of Soil Water Conservation
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations
FRSC Forest Research and Survey Centre
HLFFDP Hills Leasehold Forestry and Forage Development Project
IAAS Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science
ICIMOD International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
IFAD International Fund for Agriculture Development
INGO International Non Government Organization
MOAC Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative
NARC Nepal Agriculture Research Council
NBPDP Northern Belt Pasture Development Program
NEP/85/007 FAO, High Altitude Pasture Development Project
NFGRC National Forage and Grassland Research Centre
ODA Overseas Development Administration of British Government
PAC Pakhribas Agricultural Centre
PTSMF Pasture Trial and Seed Multiplication Farm
RAS/79/12 FAO, Himalayan Pasture and Fodder Research Network
UNDP United Nations Development Program
USAID United States Agency for International Development
xviii
Chapter 1 General Introduction
1
CHAPTER 1
General Introduction
The farming ecosystems of Nepal constitute 35% mountains (altitude range
3000 to 8848 m), 42% hills (600 to 3000m) and 32% plains (60 to 600m) (CBS,
2002; MOAC, 2006), and are subject to a strong monsoonal influence with a
nine - month dry season from late September to early June (Gurung, 2005).
These conditions result in high rates of erosion (Dhakal, et al., 2001; Jha, 2002;
Wickramagamage, 1990). Land productivity is reported to be declining at 1.25%
per year (RCUP, 1979), and vegetation diversity is predicted to decline by 43%
by the end of 21st century (Sodhi, et al., 2004).
The expansion of crop farming onto marginal and sloping land (Mehta, et al.,
2003; Rajbhandary & Shah, 1981) has resulted in widespread land degradation
(Wu, et al., 2001), declining soil fertility and increasing erosion (Kironchi &
Mbuvi, 1996; Srivastva, et al., 2003) which together threaten the sustainability
of small farming systems (Sodhi et al., 2004). In livestock areas, stocking rates
may be 3-13 times greater than carrying capacity (Kshatri, 2000; Rajbhandary &
Shah, 1981). Agroforestry, involving the integration of multipurpose fodder trees
into crop and livestock systems, has the potential to mitigate these problems by
improving soil fertility, limiting erosion (Neupane & Thapa, 2001), providing dryseason
fodder supplements, and meeting small-wood requirements for
construction and fuel (Kshatri, 2001; Kshatri, 2003).
Multi-purpose fodder trees (MFT) are widely used for livestock feeding in Nepal
(Subba, 2001) and elsewhere (Delate, et al., 2005; Pande, 1997; Topps, 1992),
but there is limited information on their productivity and on their nutritive value
for ruminant animals (Kshatri & Gurung, 1999). Also, although buffalo (Bubalus
bubalis) are economically important animals in Nepal (Shrestha, 2003), being
responsible for 70% and 65% of total milk and meat production, respectively
(MOAC, 2006), information on the value of browse species in systems of buffalo
production is limited (Kshatri, 2003).
Chapter 1 General Introduction
2
A comprehensive study of the factors influencing the productivity of MFT in
Nepal is beyond the scope of this thesis. Rather, the approach used is to bring
together new information on:
a) Current use and management of alternative species of fodder tree from a
farmers workshop study in Nepal (Chapter 3),
b) Fodder tree establishment and biomass production potential from a series
of field studies on Ficus species in Nepal and New Zealand (Chapters 4, 7
and 8), and
c) Nutritive value for lactating buffalo in Nepal (Chapter 6) and feeding
preference for sheep in New Zealand of alternative fodder tree species
(Chapters 5).
This information is then integrated into a set of recommendations for improving
the sustainability and productivity of MFT systems (Chapter 9).
Chapter 2 Literature Review
3
CHAPTER 2
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
The objective in this review is to explore worldwide available data on the use of
multipurpose evergreen tree fodder relevant to the mountain ecosystem of
Nepal so that proposals can be developed for further research. It will critically
analyse the existing knowledge on what has been done so far to feed the
animals during dry seasons, how it was done and what can be done in solving
the animal feed deficit problems faced by millions of remote small holder
livestock owners.
The review is mainly focused on the selection of multipurpose tree varieties,
farmer friendly methods of propagation, nutrition and biomass production of
Ficus benjamina and Ficus glaberrima so as to renovate mountain ecosystem
and raise in situ biomass productivity which is highly essential in the areas of
poor transportation.
Geographically, Nepal is a land-locked Himalayan country located on the
highest point on earth. Its northern border is with Tibet, part of China and its
southern border is with Bihar, part of India. Thus Nepal lies between latitude 26o
22’ N to 30o 27’ N and longitude 80o 4’ to 88o 12’ E. Total area of Nepal is
147181 sq km with average length of 885 km east to west on the Himalayan
range. The shape of Nepal is non-uniformly rectangular and has a mean width
of 193 km, from north to south. Elevation rises from 60m in the river basin of the
flat land areas of eastern Tarai, Nepal to 8848 masl at Mt Everest. Using 500m
elevation as one eco-zone, Nepal can be divided into 17 altitude zones with four
aspects north, south, east and west. Based on altitude, Nepal can be divided
into 88 vertical eco-zones with four main aspects facing towards sun and away
from sun, facing towards snow-capped mountains and away from snow. In
effect Nepal has exceptionally diversified life-zones, which demands altitudebased
research and development. A case study expressed similar views
(Dhakal, et al., 2001). Therefore, mountain ecosystems are characterised by
Chapter 2 Literature Review
4
highly undulating terrains with densely inhabited valley zones. The habitats are
greatly inaccessible as they are located beyond the reach of modern transport.
They are further isolated from rest of the world by fast-flowing mountain rivers
waiting for centuries to have a bridge constructed.
About a quarter of a million people particularly from urban areas and the
Himalayan tourist route in Nepal have access to nearly all facilities of the
modern age indicating better standards of living. Meanwhile, 90% of the
population lives a life much similar to that of the 14th century, lacking anything
of a modern nature. They need to walk up to 15 days up and down just to buy
salt and sugar which they carry on their back to their habitat. In totality, this
mountain habitat demonstrates a historical place where all stages of
development from the primitive to the modern age can be seen. Life in general,
away from urban areas and the tourist trek route, is barely sustainable.
The economy of Nepal is based on agriculture from which 81% of the
population makes their living. From the year 1991, Nepal started importing
about 1.8 million tons of cereal grain each year (CBS, 2001). This is an
indication that grain produced within the country is not enough for the entire
population. Current to 2003, per capita gross domestic product (GDP) is
US$238. Thus, the problem of developing this country is malnutrition due to
severe lack of balanced diet as opposed to obesity due to over eating in the
western world.
Despite its extraordinary diversity, Nepali ecosystem of the mountains is a
home for a human population of 23.2 million (CBS, 2002), their animals and
natural faunas. Ultimately, the existing population is more than the resources
can feed; the human population is increasing trends whereas natural resources
are declining. Density of human population is 157, cows 50, Yak 0.39, buffaloes
21.17, goat 37.47, sheep 4.09, and pigs 3.37 head per km2 respectively (CBS,
2002). A rough calculation indicates that aggregated population density will be
over 423 heads per km2 including poultry birds, horses and elephants
competing for the same resources. Similarly, Rajbhandary & Shah, (1981)
reported that livestock wealth represents Nepal as having the world’s highest
livestock population per unit area. Likewise, stocking rate is calculated to be 9
Chapter 2 Literature Review
5
times and 13 times higher in forests and open grazing lands in the mid-hills
respectively (Rajbhandary and Shree Govind, 1981).
Table 2.1 Density of livestock population (animal km2) (calculated from MOAC,
1998/99 data).
Animal
Species
On the basis of
total area of Nepal
147181 km2
On the basis of
agriculture and
pasture land area
59932 km2
On the basis
of agriculture
land area
39459 km2
On the
basis of
pasture land
17529 km2
Cattle 47.71 117.18 177.98 400.65
Buffalo 23.95 58.83 89.35 201.14
Sheep 5.78 14.21 21.58 48.60
Goat 42.97 105.53 160.29 360.83
Pig 5.96 14.64 22.24 50.07
Fowl 126.5 310.67 426.25 1062.21
Duck 2.88 7.09 10.77 24.25
Note: For the year 2002 human population density was 157 per km2. Population
growth rate was 2.4 percent.
One of the current studies indicates that "while technological improvements and
increase in crop prices increased cropped area, reduced population had the
opposite effect. Reduced population growth rate, and increased price for major
agricultural crops led to overall reduction in forest degradation. The study,
therefore, concludes that family planning policies aimed at reduction of
population growth rate and increase in process of major agricultural crops can
be an effective policy for slowing down the process of forest degradation or
even for reversing it completely to regeneration" (Sankhayan, et al., 2003).
Quantity and quality of ruminants feed availability depends upon the seasons,
elevations, aspects of mountains, in situ degree of slopes and accessibility to
agrosilvopastoral systems. Table 2.2 indicates carrying capacity of various
lands. For example Alpine meadow has the highest carrying capacity of 1.77
LSU, which is available only to high altitude ruminants for example Yak
mountain goats and sheep. For other animals, the 30 year trends presented in
Chapter 2 Literature Review
6
Figure 2.1 indicate feed availability is about the half of their requirements, and
declining.
Table 2.2 Dry matter (DM) production potential of various feed resource
components based on six categories of mountain ecosystem in
Nepal (Rajbhandari et al., 1981).
S.N. Land types available with small farmers DM/ha
(MT)
TDN/ha
(MT)
Carrying capacity
1 CROP LAND AREA 2.55 0.88 0.81
Crop residues/ by products 1.86 0.53 0.49
Grass and weeds from crop land 0.36 0.2 0.18
Leaf fodder 0.16 0.09 0.08
Grazing after harvest 0.17 0.06 0.06
2 ALPINE MEADOW
Existing grazing system 3.2 1.54 1.42
Rotational grazing 4 1.92 1.77
3 STEPPE GRAZING
Existing ground coverage 0.12 0.06 0.06
Deferred rotational grazing 0.15 0.07 0.06
Re-vegetation up to 25 - 30% 0.18 0.09 0.08
Re-vegetation up to 50% 0.05 0.24 0.22
4 OPEN GRAZING IN MIDHILLS
Existing system 1.2 0.58 0.54
Rotational grazing 2 0.96 0.89
Exclosure and hand cuttings 3 1.44 1.33
Partial reseeding management 4 1.92 1.77
Complete reseeding management 5 2.48 2.22
5 FOREST GRAZING 0.7 0.34 0.31
6 WASTE LAND GRAZING 0.5 0.24 0.22
Evergreen trees are a major feed source for animals in Nepal. However, lack of
feed is the major factor limiting the animal productivity for dry periods of nine
months from October to June. Therefore, this review is designed to explore
possibilities of growing evergreen fodder trees good for lopping as and when
required during the lean period.
Chapter 2 Literature Review
7
Figure 2.1 Percentage of ruminants feed availability to requirements in
Nepal Figure (Modified from Rajbhandary et al., 1981).
Average households own about 8-10 trees, mostly fodder (Pokharel, and
Ridish, 2002). The yield of fodder from a single tree averages 35 to 40 kg
annually (Kollmair, 2004). However, Kollmair (2004) did not specify the species.
Some species, for example F. glaberrima, are recorded to have produced 169
kg. In Nepal, tree fodder supplies 20 to 40 % of total feed during the dry winter
season. However, browse production is severely limited due to combinations of
factors including chilling Himalayan range, the long dry period and lack of soil
moisture. Eighty five per cent of 147,181 km2 total area of Nepal have high
degree slope land, and fodder trees are usually planted in 30o to 70o slopes.
The land which is not normally good for cultivation and cereal crops production
is being used for planting multipurpose trees. Many trees grow naturally on the
farms when protected from grazing animals. Seedlings of few other species are
collected from nearby forest, planted on the protected slope areas of a farm and
not harvested until they produce leaves. Over 250 different tree species are
being used as fodder (Subba, 2001a).
The role of politicians and planners is to provide the sociological and financial
structures within which adjustment of traditional management practice is
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1970 1980 1985 1990 2000
Years
Feed availability (%)
Cropland area Rangeland area Forest area Waste area Total feed available (%)
Chapter 2 Literature Review
8
possible and also to ensure that ‘it is necessary for the researcher to select
carefully the objective of their investigations and to be prepared to vary
management stresses in order to properly define the productivity characteristics
of plant communities (Hodgson, 1993). However, with the lack of leadership and
lack of pasture and fodder specialists in Nepal, our plant communities have not
yet been defined properly. Therefore, in relation to existing pasture and fodder
resources, we are still not aware of what potentiality and prospects exist in the
mountainous ecosystem of our country. This study will explore some of the
potential areas, which are not yet explored.
2.2 Global scenario of tree fodders
Use of tree fodder and browse plants by browsing animals is global in nature.
However, data on quantity, quality and types of browse being used is limited.
The importance of browse plants as a source of dry season nutrition is
increasing. Research conducted in India indicates that fodder trees constitute a
major proportion of livestock feeding in the middle Himalayan hills, to the extent
of 10–15 percent green forage during monsoon; 80 percent during winter and
60 percent in summer, to the rations of ruminants in the Himalayan hills (Misri,
1998). Trees growing in the open forest and road sides are regularly lopped by
the grazers. Sometimes, illicit lopping is done in the reserved forest as well
(Misri, 1998). A similar situation exists in Nepal. Different species and methods
of using fodder trees are practiced in different parts of the world. In Nepal for
example, lopping is done by climbing the tree and branches are carried to stall
fed animals. In New Zealand, poplar and willow planted for soil conservation
and shelter are also potential sources of supplementary forage (Kemp, et al.,
2001). Planting poplars is an effective technology for controlling hill soil erosion
in New Zealand pasture (Guevara-Escobar, et al., 2002) However, in New
Zealand, browse plants, mainly poplar and willow, are maintained in pasture to
a height convenient for browsing animals.
In New Zealand popular and willow are potential source of supplementary
forage during summer, In Africa Acacia albida and in South Africa Prosopis and
Gleditsia are used (Graham, 1998). A total of 250 different tree and browse
species generally used to feed ruminants were colleted from the eastern hill
farms of Nepal at altitudes ranging from 1100 to 2200m masl (Subba, 2001)
Chapter 2 Literature Review
9
This indicates that there are far more species of fodder trees above and below
these altitudes in central, western, mid-western and far-western region of Nepal.
2.3 Role of browse plants in Nepal
The primary role being played by a fodder tree is to produce green and fresh
foliage during the period of the dry season when there is no other alternative
green feed available. By planting tree fodder, several other benefits are created
which can last for many years; soil conservation, framework effect, fence
material production or kitchen garden, fuel wood, windbreaks, fibre production
from the bark of Ficus glaberrima, roadside plantation, biodiversity
conservation, environmental conservation, shade, amenity and religious value
and positive impact on carbon sequestration. F. benjamina and F. glaberrima
are expected to produce all the above effects. Artocarpus lakoocha is known for
its potentiality of higher milk production in buffaloes among hill farmers.
However, evaluation of all those effects is beyond the scope of this PhD
research.
More than 50% of the fodder for ruminant animals comes from forest resources
(Kadariya, 1992). Fodder trees hold the key to one of the large constraints for
improvement of the livelihood of smallholders in Nepal, and the opportunity for
removing this constraint is currently not being utilised (Dhakal et al., 2001).
Fodder trees are lifelines for ruminants particularly during dry seasons in the hill
farming system of Nepal, and are cheap sources of protein and energy. A total
of 250 different trees and browse species were collected from eastern hills and
analysed for the tannin content (Subba, 2002; Upreti, 2002). Above 5% tannin
was found in 16% browse plants. Based on altitude and seasons the tree fodder
supplies about 20 to 50% of ruminants feed, of which F. glaberrima is a major
contributor.
2.4 Ancient history of silviculture
"Religiosa" is the species name given to one of 2000 different fig species of
genus F. religiosa and F. benghalensis is the most sacred tree in Hinduism.
"Rig Vedas" the prime Hindu religious book written somewhere 10,000 to 300
B.C (Sidhartha, 2004) described how the mother goddess "Parvati" played with
Chapter 2 Literature Review
10
Vishnu under a Ficus religiosa tree, while other gods spied on them. According
to myths, Parvati was so angry she decided to launch a curse; thus Brahma
becomes a tree in Sanskrit called Palasa, (Butea monosperma = /B.frondosa),
Shiva (Rudra) the Ficus indica (Cactus) and Vishnu the Ficus religiosa.
Similarly, another myth says roots of Peepal tree were believed to represent
Brahma, its bark Vishnu, its branches Shiva. The three gods forming the Hindu
Trinity are 1) Brahma creates the world, 2) Vishnu sustains it and 3) Shiva
destroys it. Photographs and details about Hinduism and their life system can
be found in (http://www.webindia123.com/religion/hinduism/gods/trinity.htm)
Trinity using deer and tiger hide for wearing, bedding and making double
headed drum ("Damma-Roo" in Nepali and Hindi language).
Accordingly, in 566 B.C Gautama Buddha was born, and the Bo tree (F.
religiosa) under which he would attain enlightenment (Lewin & Myo Chit, 2004).
It indicates that shelter importance of Ficus trees was recognised thousands of
years ago. Regarding the care and management of trees, the watering of the Bo
tree is the part of Buddhist culture in Myanmar and occurs during the hottest
part of the year (Lewin & Myo Chit, 2004). Also, "the traditional tale in India is
that if Ficus benghalensis is cut down thousands of snakes will leave and will kill
everyone". This could be one of the religious strategies to protect the Banayan
trees from roadside resting places. In relation to F. benjamina nothing was
found mentioned while reviewing.
Likewise, some 246 years ago in the year 1758, Nepali poet Bhanu Bhakta
Acharya (Acharya, 1758) wrote about selling of grass by a grass-vender in
Tanhu district western Nepal. This indicates that some farmers have had
shortage of ruminant feed at least 246 years ago.
2.5 Modern history of silviculture development in Nepal
Regarding introduction of high yielding pasture and fodder seed into Nepal,
records from Ministry of Agriculture (Unpublished) indicate that Prime Minister
Jang Bahadur Rana visited United Kingdom in the year 1860 and introduced
white clover in the Kathmandu valley for the first time from England. Likewise in
the year 1925 (2001 BS) Chitlang sheep farm in Makawanpur district was
established, and in 1953 "Small Animal and Dairy Development Section" at
Chapter 2 Literature Review
11
Singha Durbar Kathmandu and Cheese factory in Langtang, Rasuwa were also
established. The New Zealand government supported the establishment of the
first dairy plant at Kathmandu in 1959. The first ever agronomist of Nepal, Mr
Netra Bahadur Basnyat (Pande, 1997) completed his degree of Master of
Agricultural Science in February, 1957 from Massey Agricultural College,
University of New Zealand (Basnyat, 1957).
2.6 Ecosystem where invasive trees find it hard to grow
In a micro-climatic condition of soil, where invasive figs fail to grow then it will be
hard for any other plant to grow without altering the environmental conditions.
Only the planting of multipurpose trees is expected to alter the environmental
conditions.
Anecdotal evidence shows annual decline of about 1.25 % in carrying capacity
of forest land in Nepal (Resources Conservation and Utilisation Project 1979).
The carrying capacity of the forest land is 0.31 Livestock Unit per ha and the
current stocking rate is 9 times more than the carrying capacity (Rajbhandary &
Shree Govind, 1981). With the above declining trend in 80 years from 1979, the
highland forest of Nepal will be completely exhausted and will turn into barren
highland desert where hardly anything grows. Mountain ecosystems need a
type of plant relatively capable of resisting drought and seasonal adversities.
Looking at the invasive characters, root system and evergreen nature, Ficus
species mainly benjamina and glaberrima could be the best species which can
grow under harsh environments, until better alternatives are found. Those
species are expected to raise mountain carrying capacity and maintain harmony
with inhabitants. Invasive plants are plant species that exhibit a tendency to
spread out of control in the landscape. Although not synonymous with "exotic
plants" ("alien plants"), invasive plants are often plants that have been
introduced from other regions. Once introduced, such plants spread quickly,
because the insects which attack them in their native lands are absent in their
new homes.
In this context both F. glaberrima and F. benjamina are in the invasive category,
but both are expected to be a boon for renovation of degraded mountain.
Chapter 2 Literature Review
12
2.7 Dynamic niche of livestock production
Niche is defined as the role of an organism within its natural environment that
determines its relations with other organisms and ensures its survival, (Encarta
dictionary).
In the mountain farming systems of Nepal several noticeable changes are
taking place which have no records (Personal observation). Regarding the
livestock keeping system, free grazing has completely changed to semiintensive
and stall-feeding conditions; cattle-keeping is changing to buffalo
keeping. Similarly large herds were reduced to smaller size. Semi-temperate
rangelands are being converted to alder based cardamom plantations. In
response to the changing environment, the transhumance system of keeping
sheep is in the verge of extinction (Kshatri, 1993).
Sustainable change could be a modified agro-silvo-pastoral system based on
the number of animals which resources can sustain. The biomass production
system involving evergreen figs i.e. F. benjamina and F. glaberrima as
multipurpose trees ensures dry season nutrition should help renovation of
mountain ecosystem with multipurpose fig trees focusing soil conservation and
edible biomass production to provide hungry animals with fresh and evergreen
fodder throughout the year. Therefore, there is need to create a database for
future decisions on propagation, nutrition and biomass production of F.
benjamina and F. glaberrima.
The approach used here is to bring together new information on:
a) Current use and management of alternative MFT in Nepal
b) MFT establishment and biomass production potential mainly on farmed land
and glass house conditions.
c) Generate knowledge on nutritive value of MFT using lactating buffaloes and
sheep (large and small ruminants).
Integrated information generated will provide a set of recommendations for
improving the sustainability and productivity of MFT systems.
Chapter 2 Literature Review
13
2.8 Need for professional development in the field of tree
fodders
There is no particular tree fodder specialist with Department of Livestock
Services in Nepal. The Nepal Animal Science Association (NASA) is a common
forum for all animal scientists from Nepal, with some expatriates. Currently it
has 250 plus members including retired government officers and research
scientists from the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS) Tribhuwan
University.
The need for professional development of animal scientists was realised and
NASA was established in the year 1983 in the history of organised
professionalism in Nepal. Its role is to develop the capacity of the livestock
industry so as to alleviate rural poverty.
The author is a life member and was, as well, an executive member of NASA
for two years until August 16, 2003 and thus has had an opportunity to learn
more about the livestock system in the hills of Nepal. The first NASA convention
was held in Khumaltar, Nepal on 14 – 15 January 1991 and 5th convention was
held on 16-17 October 2003. Likewise, the Third Livestock Development Project
(TLDP), Department of Livestock Services, Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperative, Nepal held its first workshop on "Fodder and Forage
Development" on November 16 – 17, 1999 and 4th Workshop on 15 to 16
January 2003, in the Vijaya Development Resource Centre, (VDRC) Gaindakot,
Chitwan, Nepal. The Author has had the opportunity to read all proceedings and
attend five of the nine workshops. Review found that no research was done
focusing on Ficus as a multipurpose fodder tree for renovation of Mountain
ecosystems.
2.9 Review of past work
A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima planted on farms for forage production, soil
conservation and shelter are also potential sources for firewood, sawn wood
(Joshee, et al., 2002), fence material (Kshatri, 2001) and framework trees
(Elliott et al., 2002).
Chapter 2 Literature Review
14
Fodder tree cultivation is a well-adopted and sustainable way to use resources.
Like all other agroforestry land use systems the cultivation of fodder trees is
very complex and needs a vast body of knowledge to be managed successfully
(Kollmair, 2004). Also, Kollmair (2004) said that, there is no "best tree"! Only
the combination of several species could cover the needs of a farm and that
farmers do not plant trees on private land for "ecological" reasons - they do it for
survival"
In the year 1985, the Nepal Agricultural Council (NARC) was established to
investigate efficient methods and materials for higher productivity of livestock
and crops. For western Nepal, Lumle Agricultural Research Centre (LARC,
1968) and for east Pakhribas Agriculture Centre (PAC, 1969) were established
by Overseas Development Administration (ODA) of the British government. In
the year 1985, both of them merged into NARC and were given overall
responsibility of research and development in Nepal.
In general, fodder production is not a common practice in Nepal. Ruminant
feed therefore varies greatly with the seasons. During wet months of June to
August plenty of green grass is available. For the rest of the year, the only
green foliage available is either from forest tree leaf or from tree fodder grown in
the edge of the farmer’s field. Recently, a few farmers have started growing
oats.
In search of eco-friendly and sustainable sources of forage appropriate for
smallholder farming systems throughout the year, until January 2004, over a
hundred species and varieties of pasture and fodder seeds were imported and
tested in various parts of Nepal. Among them, white clover, perennial ryegrass
and cocksfoot are moderately successful in semi-temperate regions and on
government farms. In addition to evergreen tree fodder available in their fields,
less than one percent of farmers from peri-urban areas started themselves
growing oats as supplementary feeding during dry seasons. Thus the major
problem of finding sustainable sources of dry season feed remains unresolved.
Experiences so far suggest that growing the local evergreen tree fodder could
be the best alternative to local fodder deficit problems. Among the several
Chapter 2 Literature Review
15
evergreen trees, two multipurpose fodder trees (F. benjamina and F.
glaberrima) are well adapted to mountain ecosystem and have been used by
farmers from time immemorial. Both are xerophytes, epiphytes and strangling
figs (Kew, 2003) which are comparatively resistant to prolonged periods of
drought. For these reasons, they have been selected for further evaluation.
2.10 Reasoning for the selection of fodder tree species
Four reasons given for selection of F. glaberrima are; (1) its abundance in the
hill farms, (2) highest biomass production among fodder trees (3) relatively
unaided spreading of species and 4) resistant to continuous lopping for five or
ten decades. The reason for selecting A. lakoocha was its quality to increase
milk yield when fed to lactating buffaloes (Personal communication with
workshop farmers on 12 March 2005). Planting a tree has a life long beneficial
effect in the household economy of farmers. Thus, it is better to make an
informed decision and plant the right species than to regret later. The meagre
information available on tree fodder is not adequate to make an informed
decision and farmers are planting different types of fodder trees in their farmed
land (Kshatri, 2003) without knowing their quality. In contrast, A. lakoocha a
deciduous tree is used to provide dry season fodder. This chapter explains the
physical indicators such as tree trunk diameter at breast height (DBH), canopy
diameter, tree height and edible biomass production per tree. In addition, there
is a brief qualitative explanation on the effects of canopy on understorey forage
production, which helps value judgement between A. lakoocha and F.
glaberrima in the hill farming ecosystem of Nepal and decide suitable species to
plant in their farms.
2.11 Ficus species
2.11.1 Distribution of Ficus species
Evidence from diverse sources clearly shows that most ecosystems are
becoming easier to invade. One important reason for this is that potential
partnerships required establishing pollination, seed dispersal, mycorrhizal and
plant-bacteria mutualisms have been spread around the world by humans.
Together with other changes such as altered disturbances and nutrient regimes,
these are facilitating alien plant invasions worldwide (Richardson, et al., 1999).
Chapter 2 Literature Review
16
The seed of Ficus is most readily dispersed, because small figs can be
swallowed whole by the large number of birds including migratory birds moving
between continents in response to changing climate. The varieties seem to
have no ecological preferences and the greater facility for dispersal seems the
only explanation for the wide range of var. microcarpa (Corner, 1978). He
further states that it not yet possible to assign geographical limits.
In New Zealand (which has no native figs), F. macrophylla and F. rubiginosa
were cultivated for many years without setting seed. Both species acquired their
pollinating wasps recently, apparently by long-distance dispersal by wind from
their natural range in eastern Australia (Gardner & Early, 1996) Where two
species are mutually dependent, the elimination of one will result in the demise
of the other. In this sense they act as keystones species for each other (Payton,
et al., 2002).
2.11.2 Agronomy of F. benjamina and F. glaberrima
Regardless of abundance of F. glaberrima at household level in western
Pokhara Nepal (Plates 2.1 and 2.2, their silvicultural practices have never been
documented.
Therefore, information on how it grows, how much it produces, and the way it is
being produced has to be documented. Within limits of this PhD time and
resources, delineation with respect to its propagation, nutrition and biomass
production is an important part of this research.
Chapter 2 Literature Review
17
Plate 2.1 Four Ficus glaberrima trees heights 10m to 18m above ground Kalika-6
Sunpadalim, Kaski, Pokhara, Nepal. (Photograph by Kshatri, 2002).
Plate 2.2 Summer greenery in farming system of Kalika-6 Sunpadali, Kaski,
Pokhara, Nepal. (Photograph by Kshatri, 2002).
In many forests the fig tree is considered a keystone species since during parts
of the year it is virtually the only tree producing fruit. During these lean times,
many primates and birds feed almost exclusively on fig fruit (Butler, 2004).
Additionally, in the hill farming system of Nepal, the fig is being considered as
treasure of fodder for ruminants, which remain green throughout the year.
From the botanical viewpoint, fig trees have several beneficial inherent
attributes making them the fittest of all trees existing on the deteriorating
Chapter 2 Literature Review
18
mountain ecosystem. These attributes will provide renovative advantage under
zero-grazing management arising due to loss of the traditional free grazing
system. The following four main characters are responsible for making the F.
glaberrima fit for this stressful environment:
(1) Figs as a xerophyte: A plant capable of surviving prolonged period of
moisture deficiency (http://www.afae.org). On the other hand, it has been
reported as not resistant to drought (Kayastha & Amatya, 2002)
(2) Figs as an epiphyte: There are advantages of starting from the top: glorious
sunshine and by-passing dangers on the ground: flood, fire, browsing
vegetarians, falling trees and branches. The epiphyte also does not have to
invest in a heavy trunk before it gets to sunlight, and instead of climbing up
against gravity, it simply lets its roots down. Like other epiphytes, it is not a
parasite and does not take nutrients from its host. But it eventually kills its host
by slow strangulation. (http://www.szgdocent.org/ff/f-stfig.htm, 2000). Royal
Botanical Garden Kew report indicates that "epiphytes are not rooted in the soil
nor are they parasitic" and also that the areas richest in epiphytes are the
mountain rainforests at altitude around 1500 m, (Kew, 2003).
(3) Figs as a hemi-epiphyte: Perhaps the most famous hemiepiphyte is the
towering strangler fig which starts life as a tiny seed in the canopy (Butler,
2004). Hemiepiphytes represent a transition between terrestrial and epiphytic
growth forms; they retain hydraulic connections with the soil while using other
trees as support structures.
"Hemi-epiphytes are defined by canopy to floor growth" (Fatland, 1996). After
the seeds are deposited by birds or flying foxes in the forest canopy (fork and
holes) and germination occurs, the figs send roots down to the forest floor and
anchor in the soils. After contact with the new sources of nutrients, the growth
rate increases quickly. The host tree becomes surrounded by fig roots which
eventually block a majority of the light reaching the host’s crown.
(4) Figs as a strangler: Corner, (1978), said that strangling fig F. glaberrima is
puzzling both in systematic position and geographical distribution. The host is
Chapter 2 Literature Review
19
"strangled", dies and decomposes, leaving the fig standing freely. Strangler fig
can grow to be very large and some of the tallest trees in the forest (Fatland,
1996). This invasive nature worries many foresters if it is only the tree remaining
as weed in future? However, with respect to renovating the degrading mountain
ecosystem, strangling fig has been a boon and will remain so until better
alternatives are found.
2.11.3 Species of Ficus
Ficus: Fig, a genus of about 2000 species, including the well-known Banyan
(Ficus benghalensis) and the edible fig Ficus carica (Porter, 1966). Ficus is a
large genus with some 2,000 tropical and subtropical tree, shrub, and vine
species distributed around the whole world (Given, 1999). Distribution has no
geographical limit (Corner, 1978).
2.11.4 Taxonomy
Current name: Ficus glaberrima
Authority: Blume
Family: Moraceae
Synonym(s)
Ficus bistipulata
Ficus fraterna
Ficus suberosa
Ficus thomsoni
Urostigma glaberrimum (ICRAF, 2004). It will avoid any confusion arising due
many names.
F. benjamina, F. bengalensis. F. religiosa and F. elastica are some relatives of
F. glaberrima. F. glaberrima is identified as drought resistant plant, commonly
being grown on hill trail platforms (locally known as "Chautari" in Nepal) for
taking rest in tree shade while carrying bag packs uphill.
2.11.5 Naturalisation of F. glaberrima
While more evidence needs to be established, based on geographical
distinction, characterized by the abundance of F. glaberrima, its growth, vigour
and naturalized establishment in western Pokhara Nepal, the Himalayan foothill
represents the original habitat. Corner (1978) wrote that, "The strangling fig F.
glaberrima is puzzling both in systematic position and geographical distribution."
Chapter 2 Literature Review
20
2.11.6 Nutritional study of Ficus fodder
Ruminant feeding on F. glaberrima is a traditional practice mainly in Nepal.
However, Ficus species are distributed all over the world. With respect to Ficus
fodder, no data were available on nutrient content. Only two studies involving
response to fodder trees of lactating buffaloes when fed with treated or
untreated rice straw with Badhar (A. lakoocha) (Rana & Amatya, 2000), and
with F. semicordata were found (Shrestha et al., 1992). But no such studies
were done with F. benjamina and F. glaberrima.
Nutritionally, clear species differences and monthly variations were observed in
tannin activity (Wood et al., 1992) Also monthly levels of dry matter (DM), ash,
and crude protein (CP) were fairly stable except when there was new leaf
growth, although year to year differences in dry matter were found. Trends in
protein precipitation activity (PPA) fluctuation were generally similar for trees
located at similar altitudes. Some of the fluctuations were due to changes in the
extractability and quantity of condensed tannins which may affect the nutritive
value of the fodders (Wood et al., 1994b) Variability in leaf PPA was significant
(P<0.05) within trees, between trees and between bimonthly samples.
Significant (P<0.05) within-tree differences were found in fresh leaf samples of
Q. semecarpifolia and F. glaberrima. Intraspecific differences in chemical
composition may complicate the assessment of the nutritive value of tree leaf
fodders (Wood et al., 1995)
Intake of A. lakoocha increases milk yield in buffaloes (Rana & Amatya, 2000).
However, it is important to note that A. lakoocha is a deciduous tree and
possesses no leaves when they are most needed during the driest month of
March to June. In my personal experience productive life of A. lakoocha is
about 80 years compared to 100 years for F. glaberrima.
2.11.7 Primary planting site
Smallholders have less than 0.5 ha of degraded land available at various
degrees of slopes. Steep sloped land which is not good for other purposes can
be used for growing multipurpose trees. Mainly because all the small farmers
want that, difficult corners of their land should be planted with multipurpose
trees. This is partly because steep slopes will prevent animal access and thus
Chapter 2 Literature Review
21
protect the trees from damage. To ease the lopping process, bamboo ladders
are being used to get to the base of a tree and other ladders to climb the tree.
Fodder trees can be grown effectively in any degree of slope provided
temperature and moisture and nutritional condition are favourable (TLDP,
2001).
2.11.8 Slope land utilisation
For optimum utilisation of available slope land and plant resources, it is
important to find out the most productive eco-belt for specific plant species.
Success of fodder production, soil conservation, and sustainable development
programmes relies on the identification of the best adapted multipurpose tree
species. Rapid disappearance of fodder trees from natural forest and the
widening gap between demand and supply of fodder (Dhakal & Lilleso, 2000)
necessitate mitigation measures involving selection and planting of suitable
multipurpose trees.
2.11.9 Existing variation permits selection
Intraspecific and interspecific differences in tree fodder nutrient content were
observed by (Wood et al., 1995). A laboratory analysis conducted to examine
250 species of tree fodders from eastern region of Nepal found existence of
differences in nutrients and secondary compounds in them (Subba, 2001).
However, Subba did not include F. glaberrima in his tree fodder list of 250
species. This indicates that a particular fodder species, suitably adapted in one
location, may not be suitable for another. Therefore, an in situ experiment has
been designed to examine and select the best fodder species for further
planting, research and development (Kshatri, 2001).
2.11.10 Altitude and fodder tree species
A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima are found growing well in a 1000 m belt usually
within 60 to 1500 masl. This belt is the densest habitat for humans and animals
in Nepal. Although F. glaberrima ma be lopped for 100 years or more after
planting, they are never irrigated and fertilised. However, until their first harvest
at the age of three to five years, the seedlings are protected by planting either in
the vertical cliffs, beyond the reach of animals, or wrapped with some thorny
bushes to avoid seedlings loss due to browsing.
Chapter 2 Literature Review
22
2.11.11 Source of planting material for hill farmers
Small holders in particular have no reliable source of planting material of F.
benjamina and F. glaberrima. Seedling production from seeds is possible;
however, the tiny size of seed and seedlings at the beginning, their slow
development and establishment need careful management. Propagation
through air layering and branch cuttings is also possible (Kayastha & Amatya,
2002).
2.11.12 Propagation of Ficus species
Traditionally the only propagation methods used by farmers from hills are
collection of seedlings from forest forks and holes where seeds from birds’
droppings germinated. Air layering of branches measuring 10±5 cm diameter is
another method hill farmers can use. No data are available to suggest the
success and failure of farmers’ practices. In addition to cuttings, grafting and
seedlings from nursery, tissue culture methods can be used for multiplying the
saplings.
The limited evidence on methods of fig propagation relevant to mountain
ecosystem, meagre and inconsistent information available is presented
hereunder.
Vegetative methods of propagation can be used for multiplying fodder tree
species. The most common species are not usually the most valuable, but the
most easily propagated (Hawkins & Malla, 1983)). This was a result of 35
households surveyed in each of three villages in Western Nepal and does not
say anything about farmers’ preferences on types of propagation. Farmers
prefer vegetative techniques to 'improved' technologies because they are
affordable, effective and often quicker to establish. However, indigenous
practices are not available for all common species; they can be wasteful of
material and damaging to the mother plants (Tiwari, 1994). Survival rates are
given for the 6 most common species 8 and 30 months after planting: Badahar,
84 and 56%; bans, 54 and 32%; nimmaro, 46 and 32%; rai khanim, 71 and
52%; ipil ipil, 75 and 70%; and pakhuri, 57 and 26%. In general, the earlier in
the monsoon season that the seedlings were planted, the better their survival.
Chapter 2 Literature Review
23
The major cause of mortality was grazing by livestock (Balogun & Harrison,
1989).
Seeds of F. glaberrima were included to produce seedlings as part of
propagating framework trees in Thailand. Different species produce seeds at
different times of the year and they have different growth rates, yet saplings
must attain a plantable size by the optimum planting time i.e. the start of the wet
season. Germination percentages ranged from 38 to 89%, and the time in the
nursery to reach a plantable size ranged from 119 days for Prunus cerasoides,
when it had reached a mean height of 48.6 cm standard deviation (SD) =7.9), to
609 days for Lithocarpus craibianus, when it had reached mean height of 40.5
cm (SD=10.6) (Elliott et al., 2002). F. glaberrima has typically small seeds. In
many nurseries in Nepal the same techniques that are used to germinate large
seeds are also used, inappropriately, for small ones. The main resulting
recommendation is to use seed trays (locally and cheaply made from materials
such as cooking- and motor-oil tins), which can easily be carried to the soil shed
or a house for shade and protection from rain, and which can be sub-irrigated
(Burslem, 1989).
Tissue culture "sand rooting technique" was used for mass production of tissue
cultured trees in Nepal. Rooting is induced by inserting in vitro shoots directly
into non-sterile sand, thus eliminating the in vitro rooting step (which has been
reported to account for 30-70% of total production cost). Trees tested included
Artocarpus heterophyllus, A. lakoocha, Bischofia javanica, Dalbergia sissoo,
Eucalyptus camaldulensis, F. auriculata, F. carica, F. clavata, F. elastica, F.
glaberrima, F. lacor, F. nemoralis, F. semicordata, L. esculenta and L.
leucocephala (Rajbhandary, 1992).
2.11.13 Root Mechanism and soil conservation
Roots not only provide structural support to the plant and absorb water and
nutrient from soil but also re-enforce mountain soil conservation systems.
Anecdotal evidence shows that roots are the underground forest.
Understanding the root morphology and growth, tree survival, root competency
and role in control of soil erosion are very important.
Chapter 2 Literature Review
24
The ability of Ficus ability to modify its root system to meet the needs of the
micro-climatic conditions can help establishment and invasion in some cases.
2.11.14 Mini-nurseries in remote areas
Methods of transportation and transplantation have direct effect on survival of
the saplings. In the areas far away from motor roads like in the hill farming
system of Nepal, transportation is limited to carrying small number of saplings
either by human or by pack animals. Regardless of care and management
during transportation and planting, survival rate is often less than 50% (Author’s
experience). The major cause of sapling death is excessive loss of water from
the plant during transportation for several days up and down hills. Therefore,
small nurseries in the area of need will help improve rate of plant survival after
transplantation.
2.11.15 Biomass production
Understanding of plant characteristics is important for selecting the best
multipurpose tree within a mountain farming ecosystem. This is mainly because
different trees respond differently in given climatic conditions. Data on the effect
of fertilizer application, lopping management and quality and quantity of
biomass production was not available. With respect to F. glaberrima, whatever
data available up to January 2004 are reviewed and presented.
Table 2.3 Result of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and measurement of
ten fodder trees (F. glaberrima) above the age of 50 years located at
an elevation of 900mas in the mountain ecosystem of western
Pokhara, Nepal (Kshatri, B. B., 2001).
S.o. Parameters Average value Strategic Importance
1 Height 18.6 m Use of space above ground
2 Diameter at breast Height 2.80 m Good for pack-wood.
3 Canopy diameter 14.8 m Under utilized area.
4 Canopy area 162.4 m2 Grass and legume
5 Vacant canopy height 2 – 6 m Bush fodder production
F. glaberrima is a potential resource for supporting livestock during the lean
forage period (Rana and Amatya, 2000). Over the last five years, there have
been significant changes in certain livelihood strategies, including an increase in
biogas and crop residues as a fuel source, a shift from open grazing to stall-
Chapter 2 Literature Review
25
feeding and increases in the use of fodder crops and crop residues as livestock
feed and also a marked shortage of fuel-wood (Warner, et al., 1999). There is a
heavy dependence on 2 or 3 species and the most common species are not
usually the most valuable, but the most easily propagated. Commonest species
are Banjh (Quercus incana), Bhyaul (Grewia optiva [obtiva]), Pakhuri (F.
glaberrima), Faledo (Erythrina arborescens), Dabdabe (Garuga pinnata) and
bamboos. The number of fodder trees is not adequate for livestock
requirements and the period of fodder shortage extends from January to June.
Trees are rarely planted on irrigated fields, and the ability of the farmers to
recognize valuable species is limited by their lack of experience. It is suggested
that it should be possible to select species which can be lopped during the
period of shortage and that regionally organized seed collection and species
selection would promote the planting of valuable species (Hawkins & Malla,
1983).
Out of 33 common fodder trees under study as part of a national fodder survey,
A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima were the most used species of fodder in the
Jhapa and Sunsari district of eastern Nepal (Upadhyay, 1992). Native fodder
tree species of Nepal, if carefully selected and planted on farmers' fields, have
the potential to improve the poor fodder stands commonly found throughout the
Middle Hills (Karki & Gold, 1992). In general, farmers preferred as fodder trees
the species with high crude protein (CP) and organic matter (OM) contents both
on their fields and in their forests (Karki & Gold, 1994).
Species of a fodder tree is one of the several factors determining the amount of
fodder produced in given conditions. One of the studies found that fodder
production was very variable between trees of individual species (Amatya &
Lindley, 1992). Branches more than or equal to 1 cm diameter were lopped
from 10 trees of each species with trunk diameter more than or equal to 30 cm
in November 1990 and March 1991 (Amatya, 1992). This diameter of trees is
far less than 280 cm girth recorded for 50 years old F. glaberrima (Kshatri,
2001).
Chapter 2 Literature Review
26
2.11.16 Leaf morphology
A study in India and Bhutan on the morphological characters of 17 tree species
revealed the highest variability for leaf dry matter and leaf area (46%) and
lowest for leaf length, maximum width of leaf and perimeter (24%). In general,
leaf dry matter and maximum leaf width were the most dependable characters
for estimation of leaf area. Multiple regression equations improved the
estimation of leaf area by 2-8% in B. hainla and F. glaberrima (Wood et al.,
1995).
A. lakoocha feeding trial was effectively postponed by one year due to lack of
adequate information on the time of foliage availability. No literature indicates
that A. lakoocha is not available during dry season in Nepal. Based on the
information available, a project was set to start and planned to run through the
driest months of the year in Nepal, that is about second week of February until
June. The project was to compare the "effect of intake of A. lakoocha and F.
glaberrima on milk production of buffaloes. Because, A. lakoocha ranked first as
the best fodder tree in Nepal, in terms of palatability, nutrition and farmers’
preference, F. glaberrima has never been considered for such evaluation in the
past. The effect of feeding A. lakoocha was significant on fat % (P<.01) and TS
content of milk (P<0.05) (Rana & Amatya, 2000).
As a source of dry season nutrition, particularly in Sunpadali, Kalika-6, Kaski,
Pokhara Nepal, (elevation 900 m) F. glaberrima is available 365 days in a year
whereas A. lakoocha completes shedding its leaves generally after the second
week of February and is not available when hardest dry season starts. The
former is evergreen and the latter is deciduous. Just for supplying fodder leaves
during dry seasons, deciduous trees cannot be compared with evergreen one.
Therefore, both evergreen multipurpose trees; F. glaberrima and F. benjamina
could be the most important of all fodder trees of the areas. Despite the above
facts, we can see farmers and extension workers still making un-practical
comparisons between evergreen and deciduous fodder.
2.12 Summary and conclusions
Overexploitation of natural pasture resources is seriously damaging slope land
productivity, leading to serious lack of feed and thereby adversely affecting the
Chapter 2 Literature Review
27
health and productivity of animals, particularly during the dry period of 9 months
from October to June in the hill farming system of Nepal. The mountain
ecosystem that provides living for nearly half of 27.1 million total population of
Nepal is no longer capable of supporting ever increasing human and animal
populations, and is said to be in the verge of collapse. Planting hardy multipurpose
fodder trees will help to conserve life and stabilise this ecosystem. This
study will help select the best tree species suitable to supply dry season
nutrition for stall feed animals.
A. lakoocha is an important fodder tree but has no leaves in the densely
populated altitude of 1000±500m masl in Nepal at the time of driest month from
March to June.
F. benjamina is an indoor plant available all over the world whereas F.
glaberrima is closely related fodder tree mainly from the Himalayan foothills.
Both are evergreen plants under Moraceae family and are potential sources of
ruminant nutrition for dry seasons. This research focuses mainly on that fodder
potential.
The Mountain ecosystem is a complex and highly dynamic interaction among
trees, grasses, animals and birds generating energy for people who are sharing
a common piece of land. Overall productivity now has a negative trend, which is
commercially not viable and has fallen below subsistence. In the remote areas
people are living on the margin of their existence and are migrating to seek
asylum even abroad in search of food, water and better job. Thus, there is a
greater need for lands of renovation of mountain so that energy keeps
generation to sustain life.
Fig trees, once planted, provide nutritious fodder which can be harvested for up
to 100 years. Besides, the specialised attributes of figs, such as the strangling,
epiphytic, hemi-epiphytic, xerophytic and invasive characteristics of F.
benjamina and F. glaberrima, they are nutritious and palatable to all categories
of animals.
Chapter 2 Literature Review
28
Finally, figs have immense potential as fodder source for dry season nutrition,
soil and biodiversity conservation and also maintain ecological harmony. Thus,
evergreen figs deserve more attention of researcher thus enhancing the status
of multipurpose trees around the globe.
Lack of ruminant feed is not only causing severe malnutrition but also causing a
greater harmful effect on health and productivity than other animal diseases.
The household and national economies are being adversely affected by such
situations.
The literature review provides information on existing status and potential role of
fodder use in hill and mountain farming ecosystem of Nepal. In fact without
multipurpose trees, the future of the whole agro-silvo-pastural system will be in
question. During dry winters, when existing pastures becomes brown and
barren due to over grazing and lack of soil moisture, trees are the main source
of energy and protein for animals. Virtually tree fodder has no alternatives.
Thus browse species are playing an intricate role of dry season nutrition, soil
conservation, biodiversity conservation and are ultimately maintaining
ecological harmony. Therefore, multipurpose trees must be given due research
attention.
Different species of browse supply different quality of leaves in different times of
the year. However, ruminants need green and fresh fodder throughout the year.
The most important browse is therefore one which can supply leaves 365 days
in a year. Of the 250 plus species being used in the hills of Nepal, F. glaberrima
and F. benjamina remain green all year round. Therefore, those two Ficus
species were selected for further evaluation as multipurpose fodder trees. While
focusing mainly on propagation, nutrition and biomass production of Ficus, data
generated will be compared with that for other available tree fodder species
significant to mountain ecosystem.
Data available on browse species particular to hill farming system of Nepal is
meagre and also inconsistent. This could be due to extremes of variation in the
elevations, seasons, climatic conditions, aspects of mountains, morphological
differences and variation in the micro-climatic requirements of a particular plant
Chapter 2 Literature Review
29
species. Natural factors including hail-storm, severe drought lead us to think
twice about the highly significant variation within any research results, despite
the use of proven management practice developed elsewhere. Delineation of all
fodder trees particular to hill farming system needs species and variety-specific
in situ research.
Under existing hill farming practice, a F. glaberrima tree grows for over 100
year. That means, once planted, nutritious fodder can be harvested for 100
years. However, traditional management practices of planting, establishment,
and lopping need improvement. Provision of data on efficient management of
multipurpose trees, practical means of propagation, comparative chart of
nutritive values and biomass yielding species will encourage farmers to grow
more plants which they need for their future generation. Besides, naturally
specialised attributes of figs, such as the strangling nature, epiphytic, hemiepiphytic,
xerophytic and invasive characteristics of F. benjamina and F.
glaberrima needs research. Different categories of birds after devouring on
small syconium full of seeds can fly continent to continent in course of migration
which might spread the fig around the globe. This is how varieties of figs have
no geographical limits.
Despite the great need to gain knowledge of multipurpose trees, none of the
potential trees existing in Himalayan ecosystem have been studied extensively.
The target species for this research are F. benjamina and F. glaberrima, which
are prime indoor plant and fodder plant respectively.
The genus Ficus has immense potential as fodder resources for dry season
nutrition, soil and biodiversity conservation and also maintains ecological
harmony. Finally, evergreen fig deserves much needed attention of researcher
for enhancing the status o multipurpose trees around the globe.
Lack of ruminant feed is not only causing severe malnutrition but also casting a
harmful effect on health and productivity. The household and national
economies are being adversely affected by such situations.
Chapter 2 Literature Review
30
The review provides information on existing status and potential role of fodder
use in hill and mountain farming ecosystem of Nepal. In fact without
multipurpose trees, the future of whole agro-silvo-pastural system will be in
question. During dry winter, when existing pastures becomes brown and barren
due to over grazing and lack of soil moisture, trees are the main source of
energy and protein for animals. Virtually tree fodder has no alternatives. Thus
browse species are playing essentially intricate role of dry season nutrition, soil
conservation, and biodiversity conservation and ultimately maintaining
ecological harmony. Therefore, multipurpose trees should be given due
research attention.
Different species of browse supply different quality of leaves in different times of
the year. However, ruminants need green and fresh fodder through the year.
Thus most important browse is one which can supply leaves 365 days in a year.
Of the 250 plus species being used in the hills of Nepal, F. glaberrima and F.
benjamina remain green all year round. Therefore, those two Ficus species
were selected for further evaluation as multipurpose fodder trees. While
focusing mainly on propagation, nutrition and biomass production of Ficus, data
generated will be compared with other available tree fodder species significant
to mountain ecosystem.
Data available on browse species particular to hill farming system of Nepal is
meagre and also inconsistent. This could be due to extremes of variation in the
elevations, seasons, climatic conditions, aspects of mountains, morphological
differences and variation in the micro-climatic requirements of a particular plant
species. Delineation of all fodder trees particular to hill farming system needs
species and variety-specific in situ research.
To achieve the broader objective, the following specific gaps in knowledge were
identified on the basis of which experiments were designed to acquire the
knowledge to renovate the degraded hills, supply nutrients to herbivores and
help conserve biodiversity in a sustainable way.
The approach used here is to bring together new information on:
a) Current use and management of alternative MFT in Nepal
Chapter 2 Literature Review
31
b) MFT establishment and biomass production potential mainly on farmed land
and under glass house conditions.
c) Generate knowledge on the nutritive value of MFT using lactating buffaloes
and sheep ( large and small ruminants).
Integrated information generated will provide a set of recommendations for
improving the sustainability and productivity of MFT systems.
Chapter 2 Literature Review
32
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
33
CHAPTER 3
Invasive tree Ficus glaberrima characteristics and
fodder research priorities set by users’ participatory
workshops in Nepal
3.1 Introduction
This Focus Group Workshop is a vital part of research for understanding natural
and farmed MFT and developing a new strategy to restore and manage hill
farming ecosystems.
Fodder trees are disappearing rapidly from the natural forest of the mid-hills
which was source of 35% of the annual livestock feed. Estimated 5 – 6 million
tons of dry matter equivalent, are met from forage coming from natural forest
(Dhakal & Lilleso, 2000). Farmers possess an extensive ecological knowledge
of tree crop interactions, fodder quality evaluation and tree fodder management
techniques, which they used in management of tree fodder on farmland and in
formulating feeding strategies (Gurung, 1999). Varying degree of access to offfarm
fodder sources and the number of livestock kept by different households
also seems to affect fodder management decisions (Vickers & Rekha, 2000).
Farmers are planting an increasing number of F. glaberrima trees as a cheap
and simple solution to counterbalance the declining forest resources in Nepal;
however, its usefulness has never been verified. Selection and planting of trees
depends on what the farmers like (Bista, 2000). Thus, to start with the selection
process using farmers’ indigenous knowledge two focus group workshops were
conducted in the field in western Pokhara, Nepal.
Based on traditional farmers’ practices, F. glaberrima was classified on the
basis of test (bitter and sweet), thickness of leaves (thick and thin) and size of
leaves (big or broad and small or narrow) and lustre of leaves (black or dark
green or light white).
The integration of trees with agronomic crops has been actively promoted
throughout the world to increase biodiversity, to optimise production and
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
34
resource conservation, and to improve wildlife habitat (Delate et al., 2005;
USDA, 2006). In Nepal, increase in forage demand and decreasing trend of soil
productivity in the hill farming system has led to irreversible damage to the local
biodiversity and hence chronic lack of animal feed (Kshatri, 1993; Rajbhandary
& Shah, 1981). To cope with the declining forest resources small farmers in the
hills are planting increasing numbers of tree species on their farmed land
(Thapa, et al., 1997). Trees, crops and animal husbandry are three main
interdependent components generating living for 65.5% of 27.1 million people in
Nepal (CBS, 2002; Pokharel, 2005). Livestock play a key role in providing
draught power for crop production, manure for maintaining cropland fertility,
farm income and protein for household nutrition (Sherchand, 2001; Tulachan,
1998). One pre-condition for raising livestock is fodder production which is
severely lacking in the hills of Nepal. Recently, there has been a decrease in
animal numbers and farm income, with severe consequences for human
nutrition (Thapa, et al., 1997a). Farmers depend on tree resources to maintain
livestock numbers particularly during the dry season when other feed is in
limited supply more than 75% of the fodder that is fed to livestock is used during
the period from November to June (Panday & Nosberger, 1985). Fodder
production is the main aim of growing trees, followed by firewood, fence
material and minor timber use.
Selecting and planting invasive but multipurpose trees could form the basis for
renewal of degrading hill farms and provide durable ecological services (Kshatri,
2003). F. glaberrima (FG) is one of 5000 to 7000 plant species available in
Nepal (Bajracharya, et al., 1988). Only 23 species of trees were found to be
domesticated of which F. glaberrima and A. lakoocha are the most commonly
used species in the research area. F. glaberrima provides supplementary
nutrition to lactating animals particularly during the dry period from October to
June. Leaves of the locally well-known, palatable and nutritious fodder tree; A.
lakoocha start shedding from February, which makes it unfit as fodder source
until September, whereas F. glaberrima is an evergreen multipurpose tree and
available for lopping throughout the year. About a million households around
western Nepal are using both trees as fodder, firewood, fence material, minor
timber and conservation purposes. However, their performance and usefulness
has never been investigated.
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
35
3.1.1 Background
Nepal is a landlocked country of 147181 square km area and located at 26o.22"
to 30o.27" N latitude, and 80o.4" to 88o.12"E longitude, lying on the Himalayan
range between China in the north and India in the south. Eight of 10 highest
peaks of the world including Mt Everest are in Nepal. Also there are some 200
peaks more than 6000 meters. The width of Nepal varies from 120 km to 240
km. Within one degree latitude (270 N) there is a great variation in altitude,
where the lowest elevation is 60 m at 260 22’’ latitude and highest is 8848 m Mt.
Everest. Due to steep slopes and small terraces, use of advanced technology is
limited by poor access to roads, rugged terraces and high cost. High altitudes
also have its role to complicate the crop production. Based on altitude, Nepal
can be easily stratified into 88 bands of 100 metre elevation, where each
stratum forms a specific agroecosystem. Aspects of hills, elevations, distance
from the oceans and distance form the chilling Himalayas have a direct effect
on primary production and daily chores on small farmers, thus it is relevant to
describe the background of geo-climatic conditions of the research area. The
Research site is located at 840 to 850 longitudes, 270 -280 latitude and 700 –
1500 m elevation (Gurung, 2005) in the central hill farming system of western
Nepal. It is about 10 km away from the 8167 m high Annapurna range.
A major methodological advance in rural development research in recent years
has been the recognition that rural households are not necessarily focused
exclusively on increasing crop or livestock production, whether for subsistence
farming or the market, but undertake a range of activities, both on- and off-farm,
depending on the resources to which they have access and the livelihood
strategies they choose to pursue at any given time (Twomlow, et al., 2002).
3.1.2 Collapsing hill farm ecosystem: A review
Overexploitation of plant resources is causing severe damage to the hill
pastures (Sharma & Kayastha, 1998) of the Mt Everest country of Nepal. The
problem of animal feed deficits and desertification was apparent by 1950 when
sheep herders started giving-up the transhumance system of producing sheep
(Kshatri, 1993, 2003; Mishra, 1998; Pande, 1997b). Forage deficits triggered
the agreement to ban cross border grazing between Nepal and Tibet. When
forest depletes, livestock suffer. When livestock suffer, cropland, in turn loses
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
36
and food security is threatened and ultimately the economy suffers (Sherchand,
2001). Thus, by 1956 The first five year plan was started as a series of
mitigation measures to overcome the crisis (Mishra, 1998). Then, to detail the
trends and projections of livestock production in the hills, a special "seminar on
Nepal’s experience in hill agriculture development" was organised by the
Ministry of Food and Agriculture, in cooperation with "The Agricultural
Development Council, Nepal" (Rajbhandary & Shah, 1981). Subsequently,
several long term (20 years) sectoral master plans were formulated: Forest
Master Plan, Agricultural perspective Plan (APP), Livestock Master Plan,
Irrigation Master Plan, Horticultural Master Plan and so on (Sherchand, 2001).
None of the projects was focused on the importance of F. glaberrima, despite
it’s use by millions of small farmers.
3.1.3 Evaluation of fodder trees by chemical means
Selected trees need to be resilient to local factors influencing plant production,
liked by farmers, nutritious and palatable to animals. Evaluating fodder species
using chemical methods is widely adopted (Subba, et al., 1994). Intraspecific
and inter-specific differences in leaf chemistry of the fodder trees from the hills
(Wood et al., 1995; Wood et al., 1994b), makes the available knowledge far
from conclusive and often contradictory between different laboratories (Mahato
& Harrison, 2005; Subba, 1998; Thapa et al., 1997b). In some cases chemical
explanations are similar to farmers preferences in other cases there is no
explanation for them (Subba, et al., 2002). Proximate analysis and other
methods of analysis are used in which digestibility, crude protein, crude fibre,
lignin, cellulose and tannin content provide as indicator of fodder quality. Many
studies carried out based on these indicators have produced widely differing
results for the same species (Subba et al., 1994). Review of literature clearly
indicates that evaluating fodder trees by chemical means alone is not enough.
There is a need for composite methods including a better understanding of the
factors influencing fodder quality, farmer’s preferences and conformation with
chemical methods.
3.1.4 Role of forest resources and stall feeding animals in the hills
About 50 % of animal feed comes from the forest. The forest resources in Nepal
are not only important from the view point of conserving the natural
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
37
environment, particularly land degradation, loss of habitat or wild flora and
fauna, maintaining balance of hydrological cycles and natural disasters, but also
as a major source of livelihoods of the people (Mishra, 1998) .
There is a general trend toward declining cattle populations in Indian
Himalayas, Nepal and Bhutan. This could be mainly because of decreasing
feed resources and a decline in areas for open grazing (Tulachan, 2000). Major
concern is the declining soil productivity due to rampant erosion leading to
desertification (Mishra, 1998). As a result 99 % of hill farmers lack animal feed
and are trying hard to find sustainable solutions to feed their animals in
landlocked mountain terrains.
3.1.5 Lack of feed and consequences at small farm level
To overcome the constant lack of animal feed, the farmers themselves are
making changes in the traditional farming system which includes:
(1) Complete abandonment of the nomadic system of keeping sheep, in
response to lack of grazing pasture
(2) Migration of rural population to urban areas and outside the country.
(3) Change in free-range system of keeping livestock during 1940s to semiintensive
system until 1980s and stall-feeding from the year 2000.
(4) A reduction to 2 to 4 animals per house hold from 10–12 animals during
1940s.
(5) An increasing number of farmers are keeping buffaloes compared with 50
years ago.
(6) In response to lack of meat, increasing number of new generation Hindus
of occupational cast, are secretly eating beef, buffalo and pork, where
slaughtering a cow is punishable both by religion and by law in Nepal.
(7) Owing to decreasing carrying capacity of land, over 2.4 million small
farmers were displaced during 1991 to 2001 and they are the cheap
source of unskilled labour for any country around the world. The
percentage of population dependent on agriculture dropped sharply from
81 % to 65.6 % during 10 years period 1995-2000 (Census, 2001). It is
not because industries are growing but because of lack of hope to make a
living from small farming.
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
38
(8) During the past ninety years, the human population has grown from 5.6
million in 1911 to 27.1 million in 2005 with a consequent population
density of 38.3 to 184 per square km respectively, whereas land areas
remain constant and land productivity is declining at the rate of 1.25 % per
year. Now small farmers realise that any continuation of the generations
old practice of making living by felling trees for fodder, firewood and timber
purposes will prove to be suicidal and hence they need to think seriously
about reclamation.
3.1.6 Farmers Participating Workshops
The group approach to development was invented and adapted as a principle
method for solving these common problems, where experienced farmers
conduct a monthly participatory meeting to decide the suitable course of action
required for conservation, innovation and changes needed to sustain life in hill
farms. Based on interest, socio-economics and geographical locations, a group
is composed of 5 to 30 members (Kshatri 2000). Federation of community forest
user groups Nepal (FECOFUN) recorded 13000 user groups involving 35 % of
the total population who are managing 1.1 million hectare of forests (Pokharel,
2005). However, such groups are lacking scientific backup to enhance their
efficiencies. Community forest refers to a part of national forest, which is
handed over to forest user groups for its development, protection, management
and utilisation for collective benefits to locally selected communities. In other
words a group of people called a "Forest User Group (FUG)" is given rights by
the Forest Department to manage, use and protect an area of forest land or an
area of land for growing trees (Shrestha, 2002).
Obviously, lack of feed particularly during October to June is the major problem
for small farmers limiting livestock health and productivity. Planting a
multipurpose tree is a solution for the renovation of hill farms. Finding the best
adapted multipurpose trees capable of producing a diversified benefit for the
poor inhabitants of rugged terrain is a challenging question. Farmers’
participatory workshops can form the basis for pooling the indigenous technical
knowledge for planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the
components supporting their living in the local environment (Cramb, et al., 2004;
Subba, et al., 2002). Therefore, with the objective of selecting suitable
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
39
multipurpose species, two workshops of local farmers were conducted to
discuss aspects of tree fodder production in the hill farming system of Nepal.
Specific objectives were to verify:
. Key research questions: other species better than F. glaberrima?
. Participatory methods of selecting multipurpose trees.
. Tree species prioritised for detailed investigations
3.2 Methodology
To conduct a focus group workshop successfully, it is crucial to decide the right
date, day, time, venue and right duration for the resource-poor farmers to gather
in workshops without compensation. Any holidays are suitable as children will
be off school and available for household chores, while parents will be available
for the workshop. The important job of milking needs to be done by adult
members and completed by 7 am, therefore 7 – 11 am is found to be a suitable
time and duration. A common gathering place such as school, tea-shops or
Chautaree (resting platform for trekkers) is a convenient venue for the
workshop.
A proposal was developed to conduct preliminary research on F. glaberrima in
complex small farming systems in the hills of Nepal and presented in a series of
seminars for comments. The first presentation was done at the seminar
organised by the Institute of Natural Resources (INR) at Massey University on
14 August 2003. After incorporating the comments from scientists in INR, the
modified proposal was presented at the 5thNational Animal Science Convention
on 15 – 16 October 2003 in Kathmandu, organised by Nepal Animal Science
Association (NASA). This provided an opportunity to incorporate any comments
from Nepalese researchers.
Lastly, two workshops were conducted with small farmers at the research site in
western Nepal. Workshop-1 was conducted on 13th October 2004 at the
beginning of the on-farm research and workshop-2 was conducted five months
later (on 12 March 2005). After visiting farmers’ homes and discussing with
farmers, a suitable common gathering place was fixed. A "Chautaree" with large
F. benjamina tree adjoining the trekking road at Garkate of Sunpadali village,
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
40
Kalika-6, Kaski, Pokhara Nepal was used as venue for both workshops.
Chautaree is a platform for porters resting for short time, generally planted with
F. benghalensis, F. benjamina and F. religiosa trees for shade.
To conduct the Focus Group Workshop (F. glaberrima) by creating respectful
environment, among farmers’ participants, ensuring equal participation to
capture diverse views and consensus as appropriate, the following
chronological steps were adapted before, during and after the workshops:
Six months before the first workshop (19 April 2004), approval from Human
Ethics Committee, Massey University, New Zealand was obtained to conduct
the focus group workshops in Nepal.
One month before the workshops, door to door visits were made to contact
small farmers to share their views and ask if they were interested to participate
in the workshop to evaluate the importance of fodder trees. A suitable time, date
and venue were decided and informed well in advance to all participants. Venue
was fixed to be an open area suitable for gathering all participants. Twenty mats
made of rice straw that are good for sitting 40 participants and stationeries for
recording outcome of the workshop were arranged.
During the workshop users’ group members were welcomed; seats were
arranged in semi-circular manner so that each participant would be able to
contact eyes while sharing their experiences. Then, an introduction outlining
steps to be taken and the community participatory rules applicable during
workshops. Purposes and the methods to be used during the workshops
process were reiterated to the participants. The participating farmers were
allowed to share and express their views freely and get clarification of questions
and options. The same farmers were regularly interacted with for five months to
share the research results for optimum participation. Care was taken to avoid
biases and establish harmony with social environments. Focus group
Workshops lasted for 3 hours from 008–1100 hours, on both occasions.
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
41
3.4 Results
3.4.1 Background
The major land use problems identified by members of the Workshop are
outlined in Table 3.1. The three main determinants of the numbers and species
of trees on farmed land were; farmers' experience of the effects of trees on
under - storey crops, the amount and quality of the tree fodder produced, and
the availability of land.
Table 3.1 Livelihood strategies of small farmers: problems and consequences.
S.N Problems Consequences
1 Long drought period of nine
months (October to June)
prevents primary production.
Soil moisture drops below critical level and
trees start shedding leaves prematurely.
Fodder crop that need frequent irrigation
cannot be grown. Green and fresh fodder
availability is limited to evergreen trees that
are already lacking.
2 Land productivity is decreasing
and ranged from 1.2 - 5 dry
matter per hectare for existing
ground cover and complete
reseeding management
respectively (Rajbhandary and
Shah, 1981).
Straw based, poor quality cereal by products
is being supplemented with 2 - 10 kg per day
fresh fodder twigs for a buffalo maintenance
and production. Malnourished oxen are the
only source for field traction as use of tractors
is constrained by lack of motor roads, narrow
terraces and high cost.
3
Adverse effects of lack of soil
moisture on deciduous fodder
tree causes lengthening of
period of dormancy whereas an
evergreen tree starts
senescence and abscissions
prematurely.
Reduced quantity and the quality of edible
biomass per tree and per hectare and hence
less feed is available for animals’
consumption. Under feeding of animals is the
single most serious cause for deterioration of
health and productivity and thereby worsening
economy of small farmers in Nepal.
4 Children spends more time to
collecting fodder from forest and
less time for school homework
and finally dropout from school
before they develop ability to
read and write
Similar to their ancestors, hill farmers in 21
century Nepal, tend to be of the same
uneducated and traditional type and hence
continue to farm in a vulnerable condition with
limited hope for any improvement in their
standard of future living.
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
42
5 Livelihoods strategies of hill
farmers are complex, diverse,
doubtful and fragile.
Vicious circle of poverty continued until some
special, (magical, or blissful) changes takes
place.
Note: Land holding 0.54 ha per capita, two buffaloes, two cows and two goats
and five members in the family.
3.4.2 Inventory of multipurpose fodder species
A total of 1575 trees were found to be domesticated and used on the 30 small
farms. Inventories of the number and species of forage trees per farm and of
the host trees of F. glaberrima while in the epiphytic stage of development are
shown in Tables 3.2 and 3.3 respectively. Although 27 species were used as
fodder trees the mean number of species per farm was relatively small, and
only F. glaberrima exceeded mean number greater than 3.8 trees per farm
(Table 3.2).
Table 3.2 Types and number of fodder trees per farm.
Number Nepali
name of
Trees
Valid Missing
Mean
Std.
Error of
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Range
Sum
Badhar 30 0 3.76 .49 2.71 11.00 113.00
Bans 28 2 2.14 .23 1.23 4.00 60.00
Bar 6 24 1.00 .00 .00 .00 6.00
Bedulo 29 1 3.34 .28 1.51 5.00 97.00
Chilaune 30 0 3.43 .35 1.94 8.00 103.00
ChipleKaulo 9 21 1.55 .24 .72 2.00 14.00
Chiuree 4 26 1.25 .25 .500 1.00 5.00
Chuletro 7 23 1.28 .18 .48 1.00 9.00
Dabdabe 16 14 1.43 .12 .51 1.00 23.00
Gindari 27 3 2.48 .20 1.05 4.00 67.00
IpilIpil 6 24 2.83 .70 1.72 5.00 17.00
Kathar 7 23 1.14 .14 .37 1.00 8.00
Katus 30 0 3.53 .27 1.50 5.00 106.00
Kavro 28 2 2.14 .20 1.07 4.00 60.00
Khanayo 28 2 3.17 .34 1.82 7.00 89.00
Khari 20 10 2.20 .32 1.43 5.00 44.00
Khirrow 30 0 2.76 .37 2.06 10.00 83.00
Note: Land holding 0.54 ha per capita, two buffaloes, two cows and two goats
and five members in the family.
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
43
Kimbu 20 10 2.10 .28 1.25 5.00 42.00
Kutmiro 26 4 1.80 .15 .80 2.00 47.00
Nimaro 11 19 1.45 .24 .82 2.00 16.00
Pakhuri 30 0 7.63 .90 4.97 19.00 229.00
Peepal 9 21 1.00 .00 .00 .00 9.00
Phaledo 25 5 2.24 .25 1.26 5.00 56.00
Sami 15 15 1.13 .09 .35 1.00 17.00
Suntala 30 0 3.56 .40 2.20 10.00 107.00
Tanki 27 3 2.03 .17 .89 4.00 55.00
Thotne 27 3 3.44 .28 1.50 5.00 93.00
Note: E= Evergreen; Farmers (N) = total no of respondents participated in workshop;
Min=minimum number of fodder trees; Max = Maximum number of fodder trees, SD=
Standard deviation, Valid = number of farmers with respective tree species, Missing=
number of farmers without having respective tree species
Table 3.3 Host trees of F. glaberrima in forest and farms while in epiphytic
stage.
Sn Local
name
Botanical name
Advantages
Deleterious characters
1 Khirrow or
Khirra
Sapium insigne Goat feed, mulch,
kitchen cabinet, wood
good for making
musical instrument
(Sarangi,
Madramootoo, & Cox)
Some people are allergic
to milky sap.
2 Pakhuri Ficus glaberrima Evergreen: grows in
poor management,
have sweet and bitter
types with small,
medium and large
leaves. Produce up to
800 kg biomass/years
/tree
Grows slowly on tree
forks as epiphytes.
3 Kavro or
Kauro
Ficus locar Deciduous fodder
available during
drought period
Available only for a short
period of 3 months (Apr –
Jun)
4 Bedulo or
Berulo
Ficus subincisa
Syn: clavata
Grows in poor soils and
slopes. Liked by
Small tree of 4 m high.,
produce about 50 kg
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
44
animals fodder /tree/year
5 Nevaro or
Nyaro
Ficus roxburghii
Syn: auriculata
F. glaberrima can be
used as vegetable
Better in north aspect of
hills at 1000 to 2000 m
altitude.
6 Thotne or
Tote
Ficus hispada Bushy fodder, no need
for climbing
Rough broad leaves
7 Peepal Ficus religiosa
8 Bar Ficus
benghalensis
Religious trees, F.
glaberrima all year
round
9 Sami Ficus benjamina Evergreen trees
New sources of fodder
10 Khanyuoo F. semicordata Medium size tree Rough leaves, produce
only about 100 kg fresh
leaves.
11 Chiuree Bassia
butyracea
True multipurpose tree,
made butter oil out of
seeds, fruits good for
eating and making
wine. Leaves are good
fodder.
Difficult to propagate by
vegetative means.
12 Faledo Erythrina spp. Good fence for the
farm. Easy to
propagate by cuttings
pole size up to 3 cm
dia and 200 cm long.
Upper trunk and
branches have conical
prickles.
13 Suntala Citrus spp. Too many branches
and forks to hold the
Ficus seed and
moisture
Orange tree was
strangled within 30 years
of Ficus glaberrima
growth.
14 Katus Castonopsis
indica
Rough bark with
ridges. Leaves can be
eaten mainly by goats
15 Chilaune Schima wallichii Rough bark with
ridges. Leaves can be
eaten mainly by goats
Liked by goats. Buffaloes
can eat when nothing
available.
16 Kutmiro Litsea
monopetala
Good fodder tree Termite attacks the trunk
which looks dry.
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
45
17 Badhar Artocarpus
lakoocha
The best tree fodder, in
terms of animals liking
and milk production.
About 20 m tall tree.
Need higher
management to get first
harvest of leaves at 5
years of age.
18 Khari Celtis australis Medium size tree 8 m
high
Sensitive to drought
19 Tanki Bauhinia
purpurea
Medium size tree 12 m
high.
Not competitive with other
trees
20 Gidari or
Ganhaune
Premna barbata
Syn: P.
integrafolia
P. latifolia
Medium size tree 12 m
high
Unpleasant odour
21 Chiple-
Kaulo
Machilus
odoratissum
Medium size tree 12 m
high
Less palatable
22 Kathar Artocarpus
heterophilus
Medium to large tree Fruit tree, fodder is
available only when
thinning is done.
23 IpilIpil Leucaena
leucocephala
Nutritious and easy to
cut and carry
Need higher
management and
irrigation
24 Chuletro Brassiopsis
hainla
Medium tree easy to
climb
Too much shade
underneath
25 Dabdabe Garuga pinnata Medium tree Comparatively less
foliage production
26 Kimbu Morus alba Small to medium tree
easy to climb
Pest problems and low
foliage yield
27 Bans Dendrocalamus
spp.
About 10 metre tall
column and palatable
leaves
Nothing grows
underneath
Note: Suntala and Kathar are fruit trees and not fodder trees. Leaves, fruit peel
and bark preferred by goats.
The seasonality of availability of the 27 fodder species is shown in Table 3.4,
listed under the Nepalese calendar, and Table 3.5 indicates the relationship
between Nepalese and English calendars. The year-round availability of leaves
from two Ficus species (F. benjamina and F. glaberrima) and two additional
groups of species (Citrus and Dendrocalamus spp.) is clearly seen.
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
46
A. lakoocha, A. heterophilus and F. semicordata are grown in commercial
nurseries from seed. S. insigne and E. arborescens are used as poles for
fencing and become established trees. F. glaberrima and F. benjamina are
collected from the forest when still in the epiphytic stage.
Farmers' experience of the effect of A. lakoocha intake in increasing milk yield
of buffaloes was verified during the Workshop.
F. glaberrima was further classified by farmers on the basis of taste (bitter and
sweet), thickness of leaves (thick and thin), size of leaves (large and broad,
small or narrow), and leaf lustre (dark and light). Farmers' perception was that
the smaller and darker the leaves the more they were palatable.
Table 3.4 Calendar of availability of tree leaves at Sunpadali, Kalika-6, Kaski,
Nepal.
Nepali Months starting A = Asoj (15 Sep-16 Oct) Botanical name Nepali
name A K M P M F C B J A S V
A. heterophyllus Kathar x x x x x x x x x
A. lakoocha Badhar x x x x x x x x x
Bassis butyracea Chiuree x x x x x x x
Bauhinia purpurea Tanki x x x x x x x
Brassiopsis hainla Chuletro x x x x x x x
Castonopsis indica Katus x x x x x x x x x
Celtis austrles Khari x x x x x x x
Citrus spp Suntala x x x x x x x x x x x x
Dendrocalamus spp Bans x x x x x x x x x x x x
Erythrina arborescens Phaledo x x x x x x x
F. benghalensis Bar x x x x x x x x
F. benjamina (E) Somi x x x x x x x x x x x x
F. glaberrima (E) Pakhuri x x x x x x x x x x x x
Ficus hispida Thotne x x x x x x
F. locar Kavro x x x x x x x
F. religiosa Peepal x x x x x x x x
F. roxburghaii Nemaro x x x x x x x
F. semicordata Khanyo x x x x x
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
47
F. subincia Bedulo x x x x x x
Garuga pinnata Dabdabe x x x x x x x
L. leucocephala Ipil ipil x x x x x x x
Litsea monopetala Kutmiro x x x x x x
McChilus odoratissum Chiple-kaulo x x x x x x x x
Morus alba Kinbu x x x x x x x x
Premna barbata Gindari x x x x x x
Sapium inseeigne Khirrow x x x x x x x x
Schiama wallichii Chilaune x x x x x x x x x
Table 3.5 Linkage of Nepali and English calendar in relation to fodder lopping
cycle and months in dry seasons in the northern hemisphere, Nepal.
Months Fodder supply period
A. lakoocha F. glaberrima Pasture
Equivalent date in English
Calendar
Baisakh x v x B = 13 April to 13 May
Jestha x v x J = 14 May – 12 June
Asar x v v A = 15 June to 15 July
Shrawn x x v S = 5July to 16 August
Bhadau x x v B = 17 August to 16 September
Aswin v v v A = 15 September to 16 October
Kartik v v v K = 17 October to 15 November
Mangsir v v v M= 16 November to 15 December
Poush v v x P = 16 December to 13 January
Magh x v x M = 14 January to 11 February
Fagun x v x F = 12 February to 13 March
Chaitra x v x C = 14 March to 13 April
v = months of harvesting A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima pasture in farmed land of mid hills
Nepal; x = months when fodder and pasture is not available for cut and carry system
Note: This information is applicable to 600-1500 masl altitude in hill farming
system of Pokhara.
3.4.3 Research recommendations
Four forage tree species (A. lakoocha, F. benjamina, F. glaberrima, B.
butyracea) were selected for further study, with the expectation that other
species could be studied later depending on resource availability. Table 3.6 lists
the characteristics used in making this selection, and the species ranking in
each category. Six tree species (F. glaberrima, A. lakoocha, Citrus spp,
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
48
Castonopsis, Schima wallichii and Sapum insigne) were grown by all farmers,
but only the first two species were considered for priority research as the other
four were not important as fodder for buffaloes.
Table 3.6 Purposely selected multipurpose fodder tree species and criteria
applied by farmers for selection.
Fodder tree species Desirable attributes
Al Fb Fg Bb
Year round fodder supply 3 1 1 4
Soil conservation properties 4 2 1 3
Propagation through seeds 1 4 2 3
Propagation through cuttings 3 1 2 4
Biomass (kg)/ year 3 2 1 4
Preferred by farmers 1 4 3 2
Liked by animals 1 4 2 3
Raise milk yield in buffalo 1 4 3 2
Ease of lopping 4 1 2 3
Growth rate 1 4 3 2
Hardy to adversities 4 2 1 3
Overall score and Rank 26=B 29=C 21=A 33=D
Note: Rank by number: 1=Best, 2=Better, 3=Good, 4=Fair
Al = Artocarpus lakoocha; Fb = Ficus benjamina; F. glaberrima = F. glaberrima; Bb =
Bassia butyracea
3.5 Discussion
3.5.1 Use of forage trees by farmers
Participatory workshops were instrumental for selecting suitable multipurpose
trees for future research and development. Farmers’ perceptions were based on
centuries old experience of using fodder trees and hence useful for evaluating
the trees species in required detail. It was concluded that palatable, nutritious
and drought hardy evergreen fodder tree species will be helpful for the
renovation of degrading hill farms. Before deciding to invest in large scale
planting, it is important to prove comparative benefits of the different trees
available. Farmers’ methods of comparing the fodder trees are based on the
effect of planted trees on understorey crops(Douglas et al., 2006), animal intake
of a particular fodder species and its effects on quality of health and
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
49
productivity. Quality factors known to farmers’ were leaf age, season, texture,
bitterness, toxicities, values, tree-crop interaction and degree of management
needed to grow a tree to its full maturity. It was also apparent that some species
were preferred by small ruminants while others were preferred by large
ruminants. Therefore, species of animal and stage of lactation were important
factors when deciding which tree species were to be harvested for the day. For
example Artocarpus lakoocha is given only to lactating animals while Sapium
insigne is given only to goats.
Price of browse is an important factor to be considered during the selection
process, though buying and selling of fodder is a new practice at the research
site. Browse is sold while on the trees and generally it is the responsibility of the
buyer to climb the trees and cut and carry branches to required destinations
where stall feeding is the main practice. Price is fixed by the number of Bhari’s
(approximately 30 kg bundle) of browse produced last year as it is difficult to
estimate just by looking at the trees. Distance from the tree to where it is being
used, quality and approximate weight of leaves, lopping dates and how easy it
is to climb the tree (tree architecture) are the factors associated that affect the
fodder price. Traditional practice of exchanging tree browse with 1 – 5 kg of
ghee based on the size has now been replaced by selling in cash. Until 1990
only A. lakoocha was in high demand but, it was revealed at the workshops that
after 1990 Ficus glaberrima also started fetching a commercial price.
Managing fodder tree on the risers and bunds of farmed land is complicated by
wide differences in tree-crop interactions as crops under some species of tree
canopy will be reduced in quality and quantity. Also, not all the domesticated
trees have desirable attributes. Consideration of criteria in tree selection
programmes based on farmers knowledge can be envisaged as resulting in
explicit selection of species and genotypes that may be compatible with
requirements for incorporation of trees into local farming systems (Thapa et al.,
1997b).
The great majority of tree species used by farmers are new to research and
therefore, lacking in scientific data. Farmed land alone in Kalika-6, Sunpadali,
Kaski, Pokhara recorded 27 species and the vast majority of other species are
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
50
in the forest which is beyond the scope of this study. Given the resource
constraints, it was agreed by the workshop participants it is practical to select
the top four species that have required characteristics for further research and
development. By way of "learning by doing", more species could be tested and
promoted to establish trees in risers, bunds and degraded hills. High potential
for further selection research is indicated by the existing biodiversity in the hills.
For selection and prioritisation of multi-use trees, most of the indicators of
fodder quality were based on the applied environmental physiology of trees.
These indicators were easily observed by farmers in the context of their
experience, climatic stress and extreme environmental conditions. Some fodder
quality characteristics defined by farmers can be easily inferred (for example
coarse leaves and fodder palatability), while others could not (for example leaf
bitterness and milk and/ or ghee production). F. glaberrima alone was classified
by farmers on the basis of taste (bitter and sweet), thickness of leaves (thick
and thin) and size of leaves (big or broad and small or narrow) and lustre of
leaves (dark and light). Farmers’ perception was that smaller and darker leaves
were the most palatable. This suggests a high degree of empiricism in farmers
knowledge and that the indicators of tree fodder that they use may not be
capable of differentiating new types of tree fodder or how to use existing types
in different ways, therefore there is a need for alternative methods of evaluation
involving use of animals for selecting the fodder and advanced chemical
analysis to enhance the quality of selection (Thapa et al., 1997b).
Multiuse is the main reason for preferring F. glaberrima. Over one million small
farm families (Total: 4.98 million people) located mainly around western
Pokhara Nepal are using F. glaberrima trees as fodder, firewood, fence
material, fibre, furniture, minor timber, erosion control and conservation of soil
nutrients. Thus, farmers started planting F. glaberrima to compensate for the
fading forest resources and to renovate the degrading hill farming system.
Traditionally, bigger size poles of F. glaberrima collected from tree forks in the
forest while in the epiphytic stage of growth or rooted by layering (Tiwari, 1994)
were planted along with fencing poles for lasting results.
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
51
Aiming to reduce the effects of land slides within the farm terraces in the hills, F.
glaberrima is also planted on the risers and bunds. Land which is the neglected
part of farm and generally not fit for repeated cultivation and other purposes is
being used for planting F. glaberrima. Planting is common on areas that are
steep and narrow and where it is difficult to make terraces using two bullocks
harnessed with a wooden plough (Kshatri, 2003). Another reason for planting
trees on steep land is to avoid fencing practices as the slope is too steep for
large animals to reach.
During the 1970s all fodder tree plants were sourced from naturally grown
seedlings from the forest. With declining forest and increasing demand for
seedlings, some farmers have started nursery businesses.
Farmers have certain preferences regarding the fodder trees based on
availability and quality of fodder during the dry season (Kharel, et al., 2000). F.
glaberrima seedlings grown on a fork or holes of A. lakoocha (Al) and the F.
glaberrima itself were uprooted and replanted. A tiny seed of F. glaberrima
germinates on the fork of any tree and starts its life as an epiphyte (Kew, 2003)
and establishes naturally after strangling the host trees. Host tree can be a
common fodder tree or other species (Table 3.3). F. glaberrima is such an
expertly epiphytic tree that it is selected by nature and thriving well in Himalayan
foothills. So far no research has been done on any aspects of F. glaberrima and
hence this is a pilot project to explore and describe the potential of F.
glaberrima and open the door for further research on its multipurpose uses. The
ultimate aim is to find ways and means of raising the primary production in hill
farms.
3.5.2 Relevance of invasive species in restoring productivity of degraded
hill farms
Some trees are better than others in terms of adapting to adverse climatic
conditions and their multipurpose uses in resource poor areas of Africa and
Asia. F. glaberrima is one such promising tree contributing to the household
economy of small farmers. With respect to surviving and establishing by itself in
adverse conditions, F. glaberrima clearly demonstrates its ability as the "Fittest
tree in the poorest terrain". However, F. glaberrima is said to be an invasive tree
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
52
within the forest. Those trees that are able to survive reproduce and spread
unaided, and sometimes at alarming rates, across the landscape are said to be
invasive (van Wilgen et al., 2001). However, in Nepal farmers are getting more
benefit than harm from epiphytic or invasive attributes of F. glaberrima. This
study aims to evaluate and prioritise those trees that are commonly available in
small farms, easy to grow and establish and are good for fodder, firewood, and
natural conservation particularly in the harsh hill farms of Nepal.
Results clearly indicate that 100% of the focus group workshop participants
representing resource poor small farmers from the hill farming system of Nepal
are growing several kinds of trees for fodder, firewood, fencing material and
minor timber purposes in their farmed land. It is obvious that without trees they
cannot cook food and they cannot feed their stall confined animal as there is no
alternative source available. Stall feeding has been the only option to keep
animals in the hills of Nepal for the past three decades.
F. glaberrima is a "double standard tree" because it is a multipurpose tree for
millions of farmers in Nepal ( Kshatri, 2001), whereas for western ecologists, it
is an invasive and strangling Ficus species (Corner, 1978). Invasive species
and the ensuing homogenization of the world's biota, form a global problem with
consequences ranging from the decline and extirpation of native species to
threats to human health (Puth & David, 2005). However, as realised by the hill
farmers in Nepal, it does not say anything about life saving properties of F.
glaberrima. Thus it is hard to recognize and understand the differences
between an invasive F. glaberrima tree becoming a multipurpose one.
Advocating promotion of invasive F. glaberrima tree helps support the cause of
generating livelihood in degraded hill farms. Therefore, this study focused
mainly on comparisons of beneficial aspects of F. glaberrima with other fodder
trees.
Establishing multipurpose trees is a low cost answer to the problems of
degrading hill pasture that is leading to a chronic lack of animal feed. To provide
lasting ecological services, users’ involvement is vital at all steps of restoring
productivity of degraded hill farms
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
53
Despite its multi-use, F. glaberrima potential for fodders has never been
investigated; as a result no basis is available for comparing and prioritising the
usefulness and research need of different trees being domesticated. Thus,
knowledge gaps still remain as to what to plant, how to plant, where to plant and
for whom to plant. These need to be solved before deciding further investment
on large scale planting. Animals are ultimate users of selected tree fodder and
poorly preferred species could decrease animal performance (McKinnon, et al.,
2000). Therefore, this research is a pilot project aiming to answer those primary
questions during PhD study and open the door for further research on the
usefulness of F. glaberrima and its role for revitalizing the collapsing hills and
mountain ecosystem.
Animals, particularly buffalo in this case, are the end users of trees being
selected. As a result sustainable production of milk, meat, draught-power for
field traction and manure for fertilising the hill terraces is maintained. Thus, a
buffalo is the most precious multipurpose animal in Nepalese households. The
number of buffaloes owned by a farmer is indicative of his socio-economic
status in the community.
Among several fodder trees naturally being grown in Sunpadali village of Kalika-
6, Pokhara Nepal, a single tree of F. glaberrima can produce 800 kg fresh
edible biomass per year inclusive of branches, twigs and leaves and continue to
produce for over a 100 years. It takes 5 to 10 years before farmers can get
their first lopping from a tree. Starting from a tiny seed in the nursery planting,
protecting the seedlings, transplanting management and final establishment of
an evergreen fodder tree takes time and money. A transect walk showed that
about 50% F. glaberrima trees in Kalika-6, Sunpadali, Pokhara, Nepal were
growing and establishing unaided. Also, farmers are actively participating in
selection of suitable trees for reclamations of eroded land. At this point a simple
modification of the traditional practice of growing F. glaberrima will hasten the
efficiency of ecosystem reconstruction.
Based on farmers classifications and visual observations of clear differences in
growth of new leaves in a particular date three distinct varieties of F. glaberrima
were identified. These Ficus varieties imply that they can be lopped at different
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
54
dates supplying relatively balanced quality of leaves in terms of leaf age over a
longer period of dry seasons.
3.5.3 Farmers views on time of lopping.
Workshop discussions on the time of lopping of tree fodder is as follows:
Table 3.7 Farmers perception of the time of lopping within a day and quality of
fodder.
Farmers usually found to be lopping their fodder trees between 5am in the morning to
7pm in the evening. But there is no fixed time for lopping.
During the dry season when dry winds dehydrate tree leaves, time of lopping within a
day has its role on health of standing tree and quality of browse lopped.
Farmers select a suitable time for lopping branches based on several factors which
have direct effect on daily chores, such as cooking, sending children to school, fetching
water and collecting firewood etc.
Browse lopped before noon (05 to 1200 hrs) lose considerable leaf moisture by
evening which may change palatability, intake and possibly nutrients. If branches are
lopped 5 am and given to buffaloes at 7pm, it exposes the leaves to dehydration for 14
hours making leaves very dry. Covering branches with straw mats soaked in water and
also spraying water on fodder leaves will prevent such drying to some extent.
Afternoon (1200 to 1900 hrs) lopping reduces the leaf water loss by reducing exposure
to the dry air.
In most cases freshly lopped branches are palatable and preferred over dried ones,
whereas in cases of Machilus odoretissima (Kaulo) wilted leaves were preferred over
fresh ones. It indicates that some species are preferred by ruminant animals after a
period of wilting or seasoning.
To avoid the daily risk of climbing trees for lopping, Artocarpus lakoocha branches can
be lopped once a week and continue to feed for 7 days to lactating buffaloes. However,
browse needs to be stored in a relatively cold and protected area beyond the reach of
dry wind and direct sunlight. Spraying of water on leaves and than covered with wet
straw mat or gunny bags will prevent moisture loss from browse.
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
55
3.6 Conclusions
Focus group workshops were helpful to use farmers’ indigenous knowledge for
selection, identification and prioritisation of multipurpose fodder tree for further
research and planting to provide lasting ecological services to them. The
research recommendations based on the outcomes of the workshop
discussions are summarised in Table 3.8.
Table 3. 8 Practical research ideas identified during farmers participatory
workshops for evaluation of fodder trees.
Method 1
Evaluations based on users
participations (Chapter 3)
Focus group workshops; Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA) Farmers experience on multipurpose role of
Ficus browse, its nutrition, biomass production and
ease of propagation were discussed recorded.
Method 2
Evaluation based on adoption
to local environment
(Chapter 4)
Biomass production: A comparison between
Artocarpus lakoocha and Ficus glaberrima biomass in
the hill farming system around Pokhara Nepal. 3
elevations x 2 species x 5 tree as replication.
Method 3
Evaluation based on cheap
and simple media for
propagations (Chapter 5)
Low cost rooting media for propagation: coarse sand,
commercial media and 50% by volume mixed sand
and commercial media = 9 treatment combinations.
3x3 factorial RCBD. Effect of rooting media on rooting
of F. benjamina cuttings and biomass production of
two year old trees.
Method 4
Evaluation using small
ruminants’ sheep (Chapter 5)
Sheep as ultimate users of browse selecting their best
feed.
F. benjamina, Poplar, and Willow as supplementary
nutrition during drought. 3 species x 4 time offered
unbalanced Latin square design.
Leaf age and senescence of F. benjamina will be
analysed against rooting media used for propagation
Method 5
Evaluation using large
ruminants (Chapter 6)
Effects of F. glaberrima intake on milk quality of
buffalo.
Six lactating buffaloes will be fed on 3 treatment diets
involving adlib amount of F. glaberrima (T1) adlib
Chapter 3 Exp.1 Research priorities set by focus group workshops
56
amount of A. lakoocha (T2) and 3kgDM F. glaberrima
+ rice straw up to appetite (T3), will be alternatively
for three periods of 10 days with 10 days adoption for
a total period of 60 days. Concentrate @ 1.5 kg/day
will be given to all. Research Design: 2(3x3) Latin
square for milk yield comparison.
Most of the indicators of fodder quality were based on applied environmental
physiology of trees which were easily observed by farmers during generations
of practice in the context of their experience, climatic stress and extreme
environmental conditions. Plant hardiness, ability of plants to produce higher
biomass during the dry season, ease of propagation (epiphytic types) and effect
of intake on quality of livestock product were basic indicators with a high degree
of empiricism based on practice.
In conclusion, the top four fodder tree species prioritised for detailed study
were: F. glaberrima (Fg), A. lakoocha (Al), F. benjamina (Fb) and Bassia
butyracea (Bb). Research can be focused on the detailed study of these
selected species so that millions of farmers practicing stall feeding with a cut
and carry system will benefit.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
57
CHAPTER 4
Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades
of lopping
4.1 Introduction
This chapter is based on the users’ participatory workshops and evaluation of
nutritious fodder species described previously (Chapter 3), where the
community need for selecting and prioritising the adapted multipurpose trees
was highlighted. This study verified the farmers experience and evaluation of A.
lakoocha and F. glaberrima by empirical means. Overexploitation of natural
forest is creating havoc in the hill farming ecosystem in Nepal (Rajbhandary &
Shah, 1981). Degrading land productivity has resulted in a severe lack of animal
feed that has led livestock and forest researchers to search for and develop
new methods of reviving the productivity of existing land (Banstola, et al., 2003;
Kshatri, 2003). Among 27 species found planted sparsely in the farmed land,
the top two species selected for this study were, A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima
as they are grown by almost 100% of small farmers in western hills (Chapter 3).
To make sure that a tree can be lopped for 100 years, trees already lopped for
the last 50 years or more and expected to live as many years more were
evaluated using farmers workshops (chapter 3).
Therefore, this study will provide information to farmers, planners and decision
makers that will assist in the judgment of the value of different fodder tree
species. It will also identify the key factors on which decisions can be based to
qualify tree species suitable for planting in the specific locations and quantify
the proportion of species to be planted for reconstruction of the hill farming
ecosystem. The aim here is to document the effects of altitude on diameter at
breast height (DBH), canopy diameter (diameter = radius x 2), height of the tree
and the edible biomass production and crude protein production per tree per
year of established F. glaberrima and A. lakoocha trees aged 50 years and
older in mountain ecosystems of Nepal. The result can be used to compare
values of F. glaberrima and A. lakoocha and other fodder tree species available
in the farmed land.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
58
Specific objective: Comparisons of edible biomass production potential of F.
glaberrima and A. lakoocha at different altitudes in Pokhara Nepal. This
objective will be used to answer the following questions:
Are there any differences between two species in terms of quality, quantity and
period of fresh biomass produced at different altitudes around Pokhara, Nepal?
Does F. glaberrima produce significantly higher edible biomass and crude
protein in comparisons to A. lakoocha particularly during the driest months of
March to June?
4.1.1 Reasoning for the selection of fodder tree species
The need for natural resource management and the challenge to feed the
increasing population brings forward fodder trees as nature's sustainable
alternative to livestock feeding (Kaphle & Devkota, 2000). In the farmland of
eastern plain area of Jhapa and Sunsary district of Nepal, A. lakoocha,
Dendrocalamus spp and F. glaberrima were among the top three preferred
species (Upadhyay, 1992). Four reasons given for selection of F. glaberrima are
; 1) its abundance in the hill farms from time immemorial, 2) highest biomass
production among fodder trees 3) relatively unaided spreading of species and 4)
resistant to continuous lopping for five or ten decades. The reason for selecting
A. lakoocha as the most preferred fodder species (Upadhyay, 1992) was its
ability to increase milk yield when fed to lactating buffaloes (Personal
communication with workshop farmers on 12 March 2005). Planting a tree has a
life long beneficial effect in the household economy of farmers. Thus, it is better
to make informed decisions and plant the right species than to regret it later.
The meagre information available on tree fodder is not adequate to make
informed decisions and farmers are planting different types of fodder trees on
their farmed land (Kshatri, 2003) without knowing their quality. This chapter
explains the physical indicators such as tree trunk diameter at breast height
(DBH), canopy diameter, tree height and edible biomass production per tree. In
addition, there is a brief qualitative explanation on the effects of canopy on
understorey forage production, which helps value judgement between A.
lakoocha and F. glaberrima in the hill farming ecosystem of Nepal and decide
farmers to suitable species to plant in their farms.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
59
4.1.2 Location
The research site was located 210 km west of Kathmandu, about an hours walk
from the gravel road. The precise address is Sunpadali, Kalika-6, Kaski
Pokhara Nepal. Elevations covered by this research were 800 to 1440 masl
(1000 ± 500m). This midhills area has a concentrated population of humans and
animals ( Rajbhandary & Shah, 1981). Traditional manual cultivation is a
common practice and there is no mechanisation of any kind at the research site.
Plate 4.1 Research site, Sunpadali village in Kalika-6, Pokhara, Nepal located
at 800 to 900 masl. Sparsely planted fodder trees can be seen in
terraced farm.
4.1.3 Soils
The surface soil and subsoil is red greyish-brown fine sandy loam but compact.
Organic matter is low and fertility is low. The soil is mainly acidic and pH is less
than 5 in most areas. Rainwater run-off is a problem, which does not allow time
to percolate water to root zones. Erosion is a serious hazard.
4.1.4 Climate
Average annual precipitation in Pokhara Nepal is based on time of arrival of
monsoon and varies with months (see Map 2 in Appendix 2). In the years 2000
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
60
to 2003, most rain was found concentrated in six month from May to October.
Highest rainfall of 89 cm was received in August and lowest of 17 cm was
received in October. Pokhara receives the highest annual rainfall in Nepal. The
average annual rainfall is about 3,580 mm and it occurs mainly from May to
September (Bogati, 2006). Likewise lowest and highest yearly average
temperature varied between 3 to 37o C in Pokhara. The experimental area
receives some frost each year. Temperature in landlocked mountain terrain is a
determinant of biomass production (see Map 5 in Appendix 2 0). A difference of
100 m in altitude yields ±0.5o C difference in environmental temperature. Winter
is cold and dry and summer is hot and wet.
4.2 Methods
4.2.1 Altitude stratifications
Three altitude strata were identified in the hill farming system each strata having
200 masl differences (see Map 2 in Appendix 2). The highest and the lowest
altitude where both species of trees were found were 1440 m and 800m,
respectively. Thus the experiment was scattered over 640 m altitude in the hill
farming ecosystem of Pokhara. Altitude strata were divided as follows with
highest strata having 240 m compared to 200 m for medium and lower strata
(Table 4.1).
Low altitude below 800 to 1000m
Medium altitude 1000 to 1200 m
High altitude 1200 to 1440 m.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
61
Plate 4.2 Silvipastoral system facing Southeast in western hills of Arba-6,
Amalachaur, Kaski, Pokhara Nepal.
4.2.2 Survey in Pokhara Nepal
Survey area selected was ward no-6 of Kalika, Village Development Committee
(VDC). Midhill farms represent the common hill village conditions typical to hill
farming system of Nepal (Pariyar, 2006). Average population and area of Kalika
VDC is 4428 and 24.7 square km (Bogati, 2006), respectively. The difference in
elevation from Garkate, Bijayapur Khola (800m) Kalika-6 to the top of Kalika-Kot
(1440m) was 640m. To stratify the altitude into three belts, with equal number of
F. glaberrima and A. lakoocha, a survey was conducted by trekking and visits to
farmers’ homes from all strata of the hill farming ecosystem. The visits were
continued until 27 trees of F. glaberrima and 27 trees of A. lakoocha were
identified and procured for the experiment.
A total of 54 trees (9 trees x 3 altitudes x 2 species of fodder trees) were
procured. All trees identified were above the age of 50 years in the mountain
ecosystem of Pokhara Nepal. Tree fodder selection criteria associated with year
round supply of fodder, higher DM production per tree per year and ease of
lopping were highlighted in chapter 3. Tree age was determined by the farmers’
discussion in workshops.
Annapurna Himalaya 8091
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
62
4.2.3 Experimental design
Table 4.1 Trial arrangement in split plots with three blocks (altitudes) for
evaluation of edible biomass production from 50 years old trees
growing in 30o – 70o slope land between 800 – 1440 m (metre above
sea level = m) in the hill farming system of Nepal.
Altitudes Trees Block-A Block-B Block-C
A. lakoocha (Al) Al1,Al2,Al3 Fg1,Fg2,Fg3 Al1,Al2,Al3
1200 to 1440 F. glaberrima (Fg) Fg1,Fg2,Fg3 Al1,Al2,Al3 Fg1,Fg2,Fg3
A. lakoocha (Al) Fg1,Fg2,Fg3 Al1,Al2,Al3 Fg1,Fg2,Fg3
1000 to 1200 F. glaberrima (Fg) Al1,Al2,Al3 Fg1,Fg2,Fg3 Al1,Al2,Al3
A. lakoocha (Al) Al1,Al2,Al3 Fg1,Fg2,Fg3 Al1,Al2,Al3
800 to 1000
F. glaberrima (Fg) Fg1,Fg2,Fg3 Al1,Al2,Al3 Fg1,Fg2,Fg3
Note: Al1, Al2, Al3 and Fg1, Fg2, Fg3 indicates three trees in each plot
4.2.4 Data analysis
The data collected were analysed by simple split-plot analysis of variance
(ANOVA) using RCBD with fixed blocks in the General Linear Model (GLM)
procedure of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS, 2001). A split plot design,
with three replicate blocks; comprising altitude as main plot and species as
subplot was used to analyze the effect of altitude on tree diameter at breast
height, canopy radius (diameter = radius x 2), tree height, yield of edible
biomass and crude protein per tree. Separation of means was based on altitude
and species and subjected to test at 5 % level using least significance
difference (LSD) technique. Also, Microsoft Office Excel was used to prepare
and manage the data before analysis using SAS. A total of 54 sample
observations that including 27 each for A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima were
taken for analysis.
4.2.5 Lopping period
Generally, lopping of trees for fodder purpose is a year round activity of rural
farmers in Nepal with low frequency during summer when grass is abundant
(Chapter 3). The main lopping period starts from 30 September (15th Asoj =
Nepali month) this is when monsoon rain stops and dry and cold winter starts.
Pastures and farms in the hills become brown and dry and hence nothing green
is left on the ground for grazing animals. Farmers need to manage animal feed
resources based on what is available. Then farmers start lopping deciduous
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
63
fodder tree first, saving the evergreen tree as a future security to be used during
the driest months of March to June in the following year.
Since the feeding value (Chapter 6) of evergreen F. glaberrima is being
compared with deciduous A. lakoocha, this experiment had to be completed
before February. After February leaves of the deciduous browse species A.
lakoocha will not be available. Therefore, lopping period for A. lakoocha is
limited to 6 months between September to February, whereas F. glaberrima can
be available for rest of the dry period.
4.2.6 Quantification of edible fodder biomass per tree
Quantification of browse produced by each fodder tree was by weighing the
fodder lopped for stall feeding animals. In case of A. lakoocha, leaves dropped
while lopping were collected in a gunny bag and recorded as part of edible
biomass produced per tree. There was no problem of collecting dropped leaves
in evergreen F. glaberrima.
In this experiment the lopping of A. lakoocha was started on 23 November 2004
(08 Mangsir) and continued for 110 days until 12th March 2005 (29 Phagun)
beyond which the nutritional quality of leaves will be inferior as they mature.
Normally shedding of A. lakoocha leaves is completed by the end of March. For
efficient utilisation of leaves, farmers finish lopping and feeding one month
before 12th March (29 Falgun).
4.2.7 Identifying the age of the trees for research
Age of the tree was identified based on owners report and those farmers older
than 60 years of age as witnesses; no records were available as to when the
trees were planted.
4.2.8 Measurements of tree components
Five main components of tree architecture were measured: trunk diameter at
breast height (DBH), branch extension (canopy radius), tree height, edible
biomass and crude protein production per tree per year were measured.
Edible biomass of the tree mainly includes small twigs with leaves, figs and bark
on them. Large ruminants such as lactating buffaloes can eat thick diameter
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
64
twigs. Length and diameter of twigs considered edible in this case vary from 30
to 100 cm in length and 0.2 to 1.9 cm in diameter, respectively. As per
prevailing common practice in the midhills of Nepal, lopping percent varies with
species where 100% twigs of A. lakoocha and 80 to 90% twigs of F. glaberrima
will be lopped. A fodder tree could be lopped over a day or it may take a couple
of weeks or a month depending upon the size of fodder tree and the number of
animals to feed on the browse. Diameter at breast height (DBH) was measured
at 4.5 ft (1.37 m) above ground level. Specially calibrated tape called a diameter
tape supplied by Global Supply Ltd; Germany was used.
4.2.8.1 Branch extension
Extension of tree fodder branches was measured as a radial distance from the
base of the tree to the perimeter of the canopy. Measuring tape (100 m
capacity) was used for this purpose. "Canopy diameter" and "diameter = radius
x 2" were used to express the horizontal growth of branches.
4.2.8.2 Height of the fodder tree
Slope/height of the tree was measured using a clinometer (SUUNTO Tandem
combination compass/clinometers). Upper and lower angles observed on top
and base of the tree were recorded. Also distance between centre of the base
of tree trunk and feet of the observer was taken. Then the heights (H) of the tree
were calculated using Pythagoras formulae (Figure 4.1).
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
65
Figure 4.1 Measurement of tree height and formulae used.
Where,
tan upper =
d
h1
, h1= tan upper x d
tan lower =
d
h2
, h2 = tan lower x d
h1 = tree height above the eyes of the observer
h2 = tree height below the eyes of observer
d = distance from the observer to the centre of the trunk
H = tree height
tan = table value of clinometers reading (upper or lower
angle)
4.2.8.3 Edible biomass production per tree
Weight was taken using a spring balance with capacity to weigh up to 100 kg.
Fifteen samples from each species were oven dried and weighed for DM
analysis (ISO-6496, 1999). Total browse that included leaves and edible small
branches and figs produced by each tree were lopped, weighed and recorded
before feeding to buffaloes.
4.2.8.4 Crude protein (CP) production per tree
Fodder samples were collected from 15 trees each from A. lakoocha and F.
glaberrima species and analysed using Kjeldahl methods (ISO-8968-1, 2001).
Means of 15 observations were used to convert the DM of 27 trees into CP
production kg/tree.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
66
4.2.9 Manpower for lopping
Cut and carry and stall-feeding is the current system for keeping animals and
needs a considerable number of skilled farmers for lopping. Lopping is a day-today
chore of hill farmers in Nepal. For many generations until today, manual
lopping is done by climbing the tree. Generally, climbing a tree is a job of a
young and skilled man, because, women,+ children and elderly farmers cannot
climb the trees. In absence of lopping manpower, fodder in the trees becomes
useless. Use of harness for safety reasons in not known in the area. In many
cases a single pole of bamboo used as a ladder to climb the first three to six
meters of the tree which is difficult part of tree to climb. A tree growing in the hill
slope needs specialised skills, for climbing and lopping safely. An experienced
farmer takes eight hours to lop a 50 years old tree.
4.2.10 Transporting the browse by farmers
Transporting browse from trees to the animal shed was done by carrying on the
back of the farmers. Edible portion of fodder branches with leaves were bundled
into 20 to 60 kg packs based on the interest and the carrying capacity of a
person and put on the back with a supporting flat rope (Namlo) on the head
(Plate 4.3). Distance between trees to the shed varied from 2 to 20 km both
ways walking generally up and down hills. Women and men are involved in the
transportation.
Only a few fodder trees were located near the shed. Most of them were
scattered over farms. Typically, farmers holding a hectare land may have his
land scattered over 10 different areas with a 1000 square meter land in each
place. Holding scattered pieces of land is a traditional common practice in the
hill farming ecosystem.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
67
Plate 4.3 Carrying A. lakoocha fodder from tree to buffalo shed.
4.3 Results
Table 4.2 Diameter at breast height (DBH) of A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima at
different altitudes in a hill farming ecosystem of Nepal.
Tree Species Altitude (masl) Mean DBH (cm)
Artocarpus 1200 - 1440 52.6
Artocarpus 1000 - 1200 46.5
Artocarpus 0800 - 1000 43.3
Ficus 1200 - 1440 73.3
Ficus 1000 - 1200 73.2
Ficus 0800 - 1000 94.9
SEM ( Species x altitude) 5.4
Probability
Species 0.0001
Altitude 0.231
Species x altitude 0.0168
SEM: standard error of the least square means
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
68
4.3.1 Diameter at breast height (DBH) + Carrying diameter
There was a significant interaction between species and altitude on DBH of the
fodder trees (P=0.0168). F. glaberrima at lower altitude had a significantly
higher DBH (n = 9) than the DBH of A. lakoocha (Table 4.2).
There was a significant (P=0.0001) effect of species on DBH with a mean DBH
of 80.5 cm for F. glaberrima compared to DBH of 47.5 cm for A. lakoocha.
There was no significant effect of altitude on DBH growth of fodder trees. The
main effect is species related.
Table 4.3 Canopy radius of A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima.
Tree Species Altitude (masl) Canopy radius (Mean Branch Ext. (m))
Artocarpus 1200 - 1440 3.8
Artocarpus 1000 - 1200 4.1
Artocarpus 0800 - 1000 3.5
Ficus 1200 - 1440 4.7
Ficus 1000 - 1200 5.7
Ficus 0800 - 1000 7.2
SEM ( Species x altitude) 0.5
Probability
Species 0.0001
Altitude 0.1275
Species x altitude 0.0327
SEM: standard error of the least square means
There was a significant interaction (P=0.0327, Table 4.3) between species and
altitude on the canopy radius of trees during the survey period. Significantly, a
wider canopy diameter was found for F. glaberrima trees at low altitude
whereas similar canopy diameter was found for A. lakoocha trees at mid and
high altitudes.
There was a significant effect of species on branch extension (diameter = radius
x 2) of tree species (P=0.0001). The mean canopy radius (n=27) of Ficus was
5.9 m compared to 3.8 m for Artocarpus.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
69
There was no significant effect of altitude on canopy growth of species of fodder
trees (P=0.1275).
Table 4.4 Tree height of A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima.
Tree Species Altitude (masl) Fodder tree height (m)
Artocarpus 1200 - 1440 16.7
Artocarpus 1000 - 1200 17.9
Artocarpus 0800 - 1000 17
Ficus 1200 - 1440 13.4
Ficus 1000 - 1200 16.5
Ficus 0800 - 1000 16
SEM ( Species x altitude) 0.8
Probability
Species 0.0094
Altitude 0.0422
Species x altitude 0.3818
4.3.2 Height of the tree
No significant interaction effect between altitude and species was found (Table
4.4) on the height of the tree during the survey conducted within September
2004 to March 2005.
There was a significant effect of species on height of the fodder trees
(P=0.0094). For example, A. lakoocha was significantly taller than F. glaberrima
trees with a mean tree height of 17.2 m and 15.3 m respectively (LSD = 1.3 m,
and, n=27).
Altitude had a significant effect on tree height (P= 0.0422). Mid and low altitudes
had taller trees compared to high altitude (17.2=16.5 > 15.0 m, (n=18)
respectively.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
70
Table 4.5 Edible biomass production of fodder trees (DM kg/trees).
Tree Species Altitude (masl) Mean Biomass (DMkg/tree)
Artocarpus 1200 - 1440 84.9
Artocarpus 1000 - 1200 86.3
Artocarpus 0800 - 1000 90.8
Ficus 1200 - 1440 84.4
Ficus 1000 - 1200 106.6
Ficus 0800 - 1000 154.4
SEM ( Species x altitude) 14.3
Probability
Species 0.0225
Altitude 0.0347
Species x altitude 0.0864
4.3.3 Biomass production (Dry matter (DM) kg/tree)
There was no significant interaction effect between altitude and species on the
fodder biomass production (P=0.0864, Table 4.5).
There was a significant difference in biomass production between tree species.
F. glaberrima produced significantly more (P=0.0225) biomass than A. lakoocha
(Table 5). Overall mean (n=27) fodder biomass per tree per year from F.
glaberrima was 115 kg compared to 87 kg for Al (LSD = 12.13 kg).
Table 4.6 Crude protein (CP) production kg/tree/year.
Tree Species Altitude (masl) Mean CP (kg/tree)
Artocarpus 1200 - 1440 10.9
Artocarpus 1000 - 1200 11.1
Artocarpus 0800 - 1000 11.6
Ficus 1200 - 1440 8.1
Ficus 1000 - 1200 10.3
Ficus 0800 - 1000 14.9
SEM (Species x altitude) 1.5
Probability
Species 0.9549
Altitude 0.0545
Species x altitude 0.1499
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
71
Altitude had a significant effect on biomass production of fodder trees. Low
altitude produced significantly higher overall mean compared to high altitude
(122.6>84.7 DM kg/tree/year). DM production of 96.4 kg per tree per year at
mid altitude was statistically similar to DM production at low and high altitude
(n=18 and LSD = 27.79).
4.3.4 Crude protein (CP) production per tree
There was no significant interaction between altitude and species on CP
production (Table 4.6) by the fodder trees (CP kg/tree).
There were no significant differences in the amount of CP produced by a tree of
A. lakoocha (11.23 kg CP per tree/year) and F. glaberima (11.15 kg CP per
tree/year). There was a significant difference in the CP production (kg/tree/year)
between low and high altitudes. However, CP production was statistically similar
for low and mid altitudes (Table 4.6).
Contrasts in species and altitude explained from 29% (CP production) to 68%
(DBH) of the observed variation in tree characteristics (Table 4.7.)
Table 4.7 Dependent variables, means, R-square values and coefficient of
variance calculated by SAS GLM procedure (n=54) using
independent variable altitude and species (altitude = high, mid and
low and species = Artocarpus and Ficus).
Dependent variables Mean Standard
deviation
r2 value (*) Coefficients
of variance
DBH (cm) 63.9 23.9 0.68 25
Canopy radius (m) 4.8 1.9 0.54 32
Tree height (m) 16.3 2.6 0.38 15
Edible biomass (DM kg/tree) 101.2 45.0 0.38 42
Crude protein (CP kg/tree) 11.2 4.5 0.29 41
* Proportion of total variation explained by species and altitude contrast.
Table 4.8 summarises the species and altitude contrasts in canopy area per
tree, together with calculations of the potential number of trees per hectare for
each species / altitude combination assuming complete canopy cover.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
72
Table 4.8 Canopy radius, tree/ha, perimeter, canopy area, and kg DM/tree of A.
lakoocha and F. glaberrima in the hill farming ecosystem of Nepal
Species Altitude tree/ha C-Area
Artocarpus 1200-1440 222 45
Artocarpus 1000-1200 189 53
Artocarpus 0800-1000 263 38
Ficus 1200-1440 145 69
Ficus 1000-1200 98 102
Ficus 0800-1000 61 163
C-Radius = Canopy radius, C-Area = Canopy area in square meter (see map 3 & 4 in
Appendix 2).
4.4 Discussion
Edible biomass productions reported in this study are based on kg DM/tree
because there is less than 0.5 ha per capita and trees sparsely planted in
farmed land in the hills of Nepal. Review shows that 250 species (D. Subba,
2001) of fodder tree were used in Nepal followed by 84 species in India (Misri,
1998), and 28 species in Bhutan (Roder, et al., 1998). In Greece, the species
studied included six shrubs: Amorpha fruticosa L., Carpinus orientalis Mill,
Colutea arborescens L., Corylus avellana L., Fraxinus ornus L. and Ostrya
carpinifolia Scop.; and four trees: Pirus amygdaliformis Vill., Quercus
pubescens Wild., Quercus sessiliflora Salish. and Robinia pseudoacacia
(Papanastasis, et al., 1997). Total edible biomass was about 50% and
decreased as the age of plants increased. Repeated annual cutting resulted in
significant reduction of both height and total biomass by 51% and 88%,
respectively, as compared with uncut plants at the end of the eighth year, and
hence cutting or grazing should not start earlier than the third year after
establishment (Papanastasis, et al., 1998). In New Zealand browse blocks are
created by planting poplar and willow resulting in double storey fodder
production systems involving understorey pastures and upper storey browse
trees (Sulaiman, 2006).
Planting trees in farmed land creates a new set of ecosystem services for stall
feeding animals and generates jobs of skilful climbing and lopping in a way that
a tree keeps producing edible biomass for longer than 100 years. Anecdotal
evidence, existing farmers practices and author’s 30 years experiences in hill
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
73
farming system of Nepal suggest that F. glaberrima and A. lakoocha can
sustain the first lopping when tree gets about 3 to 5 m height at 3 to 10 years of
age. Age difference at first lopping depends on the plant species and soil
resources available to a newly planted sapling. Lopping 50% to 100% crown
height of three year old F. semicordata, Litsea monopetala, F. auriculata and A.
lakoocha did not effect the total fodder and wood production (Karki & Gold,
1994). This indicates that three years is old enough to sustain lopping. The
purpose of the first lopping is to provide the desired shape and also to induce
foliage growth and lateral branching (Karki, 1994). Tree research particularly in
the diverse conditions of Nepal is complex, time consuming, expensive and
generally comes with a high degree of variation that discourages researchers
and hence no information is available to compare edible biomass yield of trees
older than 50 years. Coefficient of variation (CV %) in this study varies from 15
to 42 % (Table 4.7) for tree height and edible biomass production, respectively.
Another biomass yield study of F. glaberrima, F. semicordata and Gauzuma
ulmifolia found that the CV varies from 33.8 to 85.5 % (Amatya, 1992).
Reports available in Nepal use fresh matter (kg/tree/year) instead of dry matter
(DM) without specifying the age and the size of the trees. Some reports do not
even specify the fresh or dry matter produced by a tree species. For example,
leaf biomass yield of 50–90 kg per tree per year with Ficus locar producing
considerably more (150 kg/tree/year). In this thesis biomass production is
reported on a dry matter basis.
In Bhutan F. auriculata fodder yield increased with age and at four years it
produced 25 kg fodder/tree whereas at 25 years of age fodder and fuel wood
production was 210 kg and 145 kg fresh weight/tree/year found respectively
(Pariyar, 2006). Similarly, average annual fresh yield per tree was reported as
200, 120, 112, 108, 108 and 96 kg for F. auriculata, A. lakoocha, Gmelina
arborea, F. cunia, Litsea monopetala and Stereospermum suaveolens,
respectively (Roder, et al., 2003). These results are not reliable for comparison
to the results presented here because Roder et al.,., (2003) ignored DM, edible
twigs and age of the trees while quantifying the tree fodder production.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
74
Regarding the growth rate, the earliest empirical accounts of ten commonly
grown fodder tree species in Nepal that includes A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima
are those given by Karki and Gold (1992) for three year old trees. Results from
Karmaiya, Hetauda, Rampur, Pokhara1 and Pokhara2 suggest that A. lakoocha
and F. glaberrima rank 9th and 10th out of ten species tested mainly for their
growth, biomass, height and diameter. F. semicordata (FS) was tallest with 4.8
m followed by Leucaena leucocephala (LL) 4.5 m, Bauhinia varigata (BV) 3.6 m,
Morus alba (MA) 2.9 m, Bauhinia purpuria (BP) 2.9 m, Litsea monopetala (LM)
2.3 m, F. auriculata (FA) 2.3 m, Premna integrifolia (PI) 1.8 m, A. lakoocha (AL)
1.8 m and F. glaberrima (GG) 1.8 m (Karki & Gold, 1992). For F. glaberrima
tree height growth of 1.77 m at the age of 17 month was achieved in Thailand
(Elliott et al., 2003), whereas, in four years F. glaberrima grew more than 2 m
high in Adhabar Bara district, Nepal (Amatya, 1992).
Edible fodder biomass production of trees is a new concept in Nepal and
elsewhere. Foliage biomass of 0.4 kg and 0.6 kg and wood weight of 0.7 kg and
1.0 kg for F. glaberrima and A. lakoocha, respectively, and the highest foliage
weight of 4.9 kg and wood weight of 9.9 kg for F. semicordata was reported
(Karki & Gold, 1992). A study conducted in Montreal Botanical Garden to study
the biomass production of Salix species found that, trees harvested two years
after planting produced about twice the total biomass of trees harvested twice,
that is, at the end of each growing season, suggesting that a two-year cycle is
more productive than a one-year cycle (Labrecque, et al., 1993). Common
farmer practice in Nepal is one cut per tree per year for both. F. glaberima, an
evergreen tree lopped as and when needed, and A. lakoocha, not available
during the deciduous period that includes dry months of March to June.
Farmers with lactating buffalo lop the A. lakoocha tree first as it is considered to
be more nutritious and to raise the milk yield, particularly when there is no green
grass available.
Farmers without a lactating buffalo will sell the A. lakoocha tree to a farmer who
has lactating buffalo. Farmers decide date of early and late lopping of A.
lakoocha based on (a) having and not having a lactating buffalo (b) date of
calving of buffalo (c) availability of farmers interested to buy fodder. Farmers
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
75
consider A. lakoocha as nutritionally superior fodder for lactating animals and
hence rarely feed it to sheep, goat, dry cows and buffaloes.
A. lakoocha (Al) and F. glaberrima (Fg) trees lopped for 50 years and expected
to last for another 50 years were evaluated in this study. Analysis of five
dependent variables, DBH, branch extension (canopy diameter = radius x 2),
total biomass production per year per tree, and crude protein (CP) production
kg per tree clearly showed that F. glaberrima was superior in terms of greater
DBH (P=0.0001), canopy extension (P=0.0001) and biomass production
(P=0.0014) to A. lakoocha across the three altitudes under study.
The DBH of F. glaberrima was nearly double that of A. lakoocha across the hill
farming ecosystem. Within species, the DBH of F. glaberrima was highest at
lower elevation but was not significantly different at mid and high altitude 800
and 1440 masl. Contrastingly, the DBH of A. lakoocha at higher altitude was
significantly greater whereas there was no difference in DBH of A. lakoocha at
mid and low altitude. This is a pioneering study and no literature was available
to compare these results. The shapes of tree trunk at breast height were
cylindrical and regular for A. lakoocha, whereas for F. glaberrima the trunks
were mostly irregular in shape which may result in an over estimation of DBH.
Those F. glaberrima trees, which established as an invasive epiphyte, in
particular, have irregular limbs as contributed by aerial roots that develop into
trunks over a period of five or more decades.
Number and length (canopy) of branches contributed positively to a significantly
higher DM content but a similar amount of CP production per tree in F.
glaberrima than A. lakoocha. Intraspecific and interspecific differences in CP
and other nutrients in fodder trees have been reported (Tiwari, 1994; Wood et
al., 1995; Wood et al., 1994). During the dry months of Chaitra and Baisakh CP
was 10% and 8% in F. glaberrima, whereas no CP was available from A.
lakoocha due to its deciduous character (Kaphle & Devkota, 2000). Visual
observation suggested that the number of branches in F. glaberrima was
considerably greater than that on the A. lakoocha.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
76
Fodder trees lopped over 50 years have nearly similar features. The shape, size
and longevity of farmed fodder trees depends partly upon the position of roots,
distance from moisture, frequency and quantity of biomass removed by lopping
each year from a tree and the quality of lopper used during past 50 years. A
blunt sickle used for lopping is likely to cause more damage to the trees than a
sharp lopper.
In this experiment the lopping of A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima was started on
23 November 2004 (10 Poush) and continued for 110 days until 12th March
2005 (29 Falgun). For efficient utilisation of leaves before the start of
senescence, farmers finish lopping and feeding of A. lakoocha one month
before 12th March. Original farmer’s practice was to finish A. lakoocha lopping
before 12 February (within Nepali month of Magh), after that considerable
number of leaves will fall off due to the impact of striking while cutting branches
using a sickle for lopping. The whole tree will be shaken to some degree during
cutting. Main causes of losing leaves from branches being cut off are, 1) Impact
of sickle and branches while lopping, and 2) impact of falling on the ground from
fodder tree up to 15 or 20 meter high above ground level and the 3) impact of
cut off branches hitting understorey branches on the trees.
Late lopping of A. lakoocha needs extra labour to collect dropped leaves and
hence the lopping is more cost effective, if done before the second week of
February in western Pokhara Nepal, which stops further lignification and leaf
drop.
Plate 4.4 Rice growing under canopy of F. glaberrima, Kalika-6, Sunpadali,
Kaski, Pokhara Nepal.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
77
4.5 Conclusions
The result of this study clearly demonstrated that F. glaberrima has significantly
higher DBH, CR and DM production than A. lakoocha. However, Artocarpus
produced significantly taller trees than Ficus. In contrast to previous
assumptions of farmers and researchers in Nepal, A. lakoocha was inferior to
F. glaberrima in terms of total amount of edible DM and CP production per tree
per year. These results will serve as a standard decision tool for examining
whether a tree species is better than A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima. To produce
significantly higher amount of DM and equivalent amount of CP as that of A.
lakoocha per tree per year, it is recommended that more F. glaberrima trees are
planted at altitudes in the region of 1000 masl.
Considering the current importance of F. glaberrima, it is imperative to carry out
research exploring its potential in evolving production systems and to quantify
the opportunities for improving its nutritional quality and productivity through
selection and research.
Chapter 4 Exp. 2 Evaluating fodder trees in Nepal after five decades of lopping
78
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
79
CHAPTER 5
Sheep preferences for Ficus benjamina, Poplar and
Willow
5.1 Introduction
Lack of green fodder for livestock particularly during dry periods is a global
problem (Roder et al., 2003). Fodder trees are an integral part of the farming
system that forms the low cost protein and energy sources of ruminants in the
hills of Nepal (Subba, 2001). Many species of trees are used as fodder in the
tropics, especially in the dry season, when there is always a scarcity of grass
and herbaceous legume forage (Bamikole, et al., 2004). In Nepal 20 to 40 % of
the feed requirement is met by tree fodder (Amatya, 1990; Kshatri, 2003;
Pariyar, 2006). In Bhutan the contribution of tree fodder to the total ruminant
feed requirement is 20% (Roder et al., 1998). In the middle Himalayan hills of
India, fodder trees and shrubs contribute green forage to the extent of 10 – 15%
during monsoon; 80% during winter and 60% in summer (Misri, 1998). Fodder
trees have potential to remain green and so form a good source of dry-season
feed for animals. (Bamikole, et al, (2004) noted that the inherent value of
browse trees lies in the provision of protein, vitamins, and frequently also the
mineral elements that are lacking in grassland pasture during dry season.
Willow and poplar were superior to drought pasture diet, with a higher N
content, OMD and ME (McWilliam et al., 2005). However, such basic
information is lacking for the 250 different tree species being fed to ruminants in
Nepal (Subba et al., 2002).
F. glaberrima is not available in New Zealand, but F. benjamina is readily
available as it is used as a household plant. Willow and poplar were compared
to F. benjamina as they have been well researched in NZ and are known to be
trees with high feed quality.
F. benjamina is used by locals in some areas of Nepal and grows better on
eroded areas. It has potential as a multipurpose fodder tree (MFT) in the tropics
and is easy to propagate and use in cut and carry systems in Nepal where
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
80
Leucaena, Gliricidia, Mucuna and Desmodium are performing poorly (Personal
experience; also see Chapter 4).
To establish the suitability of F. benjamina as fodder and create basic
information on the fodder value of F. benjamina, an experiment was conducted
to examine the relative preference (palatability and acceptability) of F.
benjamina, poplar, and willow as fodder. This was based on dry matter (DM)
intake over four days and rate of intake over time within a day by sheep, the
force applied by sheep to tear the browse species, and crude protein and
neutral detergent fibre (NDF) content.
5.2 Material and methods
Three different species of trees growing within the farm and Plant Growth Unit
(PGU) glasshouses of Massey University, Palmerston North were used for this
study. The three tree species studied were F. benjamina, (variety benjamina)
poplar (Populus deltoides x nigra, Veronese) and willow (Salix matsudana
Koidz. X alba L, Tangoio). F. benjamina was grown inside a glasshouse at
PGU in containers as outside temperatures were not favourable for year round
growth. Willow and poplar browse were harvested from trees growing on the
Pasture and Crop Research Unit (PCRU), Massey University, New Zealand.
5.2.1 Forage preference
Study on the relative preference of browse was carried out in the Intensive
Animal Research Unit of Massey University Palmerston North. Table 5.1
represents the daily timetable for the sheep preference trial conducted for 18
days at Massey University New Zealand during 22 November to 9 December
2005.
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
81
Table 5.1 Ficus, Poplar and Willow trees required for trial.
The first three days were used for the adaptation of sheep to the experimental
environment such as mutual understanding between researcher and sheep. It is
also important to habituate the sheep which were coming directly from open
pasture conditions to a totally confined housing environment. Similarly, a
second period of 10 days was used for training the sheep to eat the new food of
F. benjamina as a choice among willow and poplar. Likewise, a third period of 4
days was used for collecting data for analysis. During the final period of one
day, sheep were given only F. benjamina browse without choice (Table 5.1).
Sixteen female adult Romney sheep were used. Average age and body weight
of sheep used was 45 months and 55 - 60 kg, respectively. Ewes were housed
Number of branches Days Activities Days Date No of
Sheep Ficus Poplar Willow
Total
1 Tuesday 22-Nov-05 24 Chaff Chaff Chaff Chaff
2 Wednesday 23-Nov-05 24 Chaff Chaff Chaff Chaff
3
Adaptation
period
Thursday 24-Nov-05 24 Chaff Chaff Chaff Chaff
4 Friday 25-Nov-05 16 16 16 16 64
5 Saturday 26-Nov-05 16 16 16 16 64
6 Sunday 27-Nov-05 16 16 16 16 64
7 Monday 28-Nov-05 16 16 16 16 64
8 Tuesday 29-Nov-05 16 16 16 16 64
9 Wednesday 30-Nov-05 16 16 16 16 64
10 Thursday 1-Dec-05 16 16 16 16 64
11 Friday 2-Dec-05 16 16 16 16 64
12 Saturday 3-Dec-05 16 16 16 16 64
13
Preexperimental
training for
sheep
Sunday 4-Dec-05 16 16 16 16 64
14 Monday 5-Dec-05 16 16 16 16 64
15 Tuesday 6-Dec-05 16 16 16 16 64
16 Wednesday 7-Dec-05 16 16 16 16 64
17
Period of
true
experiment
Thursday 8-Dec-05 16 16 16 16 64
18 Ficus only Friday 9-Dec-05 4 12 16 16 48
Total 228 236 240 240 944
Note: Chaff: Ad libitum lucerne chaff and clean water provided at all times except
two hours before the start of experimental feeding.
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
82
inside a 10.6 m x 10.4 m x 3 m shed, in a building specially designed for small
ruminant experiments with good ventilation and appropriate supply of water.
There were eight pens measuring 2.5 m x 2.1 m x 1 m. To ease the
measurement of intake only four pens were used at one time while the other
four pens were used for sheep to be put in before the next hour’s trial. The floor
of the house was made of concrete to allow easy cleaning using a water jet that
prevented build-up of ammonia.
Throughout the experiment, dust free lucerne chaff supplied by Lucerne Product
Ltd., Harris Road, Putaruru, was provided in a feeder measuring 48 cm x 48 cm
x 48 cm [(for ease of eating the height of the feeder was 16 cm shorter (48-32 =
16 cm] near the animal). Ad lib clean water was provided at all times. However,
lucerne chaff was temporarily removed for two hours before experimental
feeding each day. The browsing experiment lasted for an hour per sheep/day,
which included three successive instances of 15 minutes browsing and three
intervals of five minutes for successive measurement of intake by difference.
Plate 5.1 Sheep No 15 is browsing Willow with Ficus and Poplar within 70 cm
and the sheep has easy access to all three species of browse in trial.
During each period of 15 minutes single sheep were allowed to browse on the
same three fresh branches of Ficus, Poplar and Willow containing moisture of
61.8% 67.7% and 66.6%, respectively. To mimic the poplar and willow pasture
browse blocks currently being developed in New Zealand (Sulaiman, 2006)
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
83
branches were erected vertically on three clamps and positioned triangularly in
the centre of the pens 70 cm equidistance from the wall of the pen (Plate 5.1).
Equal distance between the branches and the wall of the pens permitted equal
opportunity to browse any species of browse that sheep preferred. All 16 sheep
were exposed randomly to treatment browse species for a total of 45 minutes
per day and intake was recorded as DM g/sheep/day.
The positioning of the browse species in the pen was rotated every 15 minutes
to prevent bias by the animals preferring a particular part of a pen (Bamikole et
al., 2004). Relative preference (palatability or acceptability) was determined by
comparing total amount of DM intake (DM g/sheep/day) over four days.
On the fifth day of the trial, four sheep selected randomly were offered F.
benjamina only for two consecutive periods of 45 minutes to measure intake
where there was no choice.
To identify the fodder species with highest intake, individual observations for the
first, second and third 15 minutes intake-data were pooled to make 64
cumulative data per species (64 cumulative data x 3 species = 192 data) and
were analysed for reporting.
5.2.2 Rate of intake
The DM intake over time is a means to quantify the preference of a particular
browse species. In this experiment both the amount of browse offered and the
time allowed to browse on it was limited to maximise the available resources.
The average starting weight (Appendix 1, n = 576 = 64 branches x 3 time
offered x 3 species) of the branches of F. benjamina, Poplar and Willow offered
to sheep varied from 479-430 g, 922-593 g, to 839-553 g respectively. During
the first 15 minutes of the trial the initial weight of the poplar branch offered to
sheep no 13 on 8th December 2005 was 834 g and when weighing the same
branch after subsequent browsing for second, third and forth times the weight of
branch was reduced to 597 g, 454 g, and 347 g, respectively. An electronic
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
84
balance "Mettler PE22" (max = 24 kg, precision = 0.1 g) was used to record the
initial fresh weight and subsequent weights (Plate 5.2).
To determine the rate of intake of a preferred browse species, 15 minute
browsing events were repeated 576 times over 4 days using three browse
species (64 branches/species x 3 species x 3 times = 576) and 16 sheep. To
verify the palatable species identified by cumulative data analysis, the rate of
intake per species was calculated using those 576 original observations. The
higher the rate of DM intake, the higher is the total intake therefore the
presumed palatability of the species.
Plate 5.2 Weighing F. benjamina branch using electronic balance ("Mettler
PE22" (max = 24 kg, precision = 0.1 g).
5.2.3 Tensile strength of leaves
Plant species and the environment in which they were grown have a direct
influence on browsing behaviour and amount intake of an animal. The value of
an intake study can be greatly enhanced by associated measurements on
vegetation characteristics and management factors which themselves influence
foraging behaviours and nutrient intake (Greenhalgh, 1982; Hodgson, 2004).
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
85
Ultimate browsing force used by sheep to detach the fresh leaves of F.
benjamina, poplar and willow from the trees were determined using TA.XT Plus,
Texture analyser stable micro system (Plate 5.3) following the Standard Test
Method prescribed in its manual. The tests were carried out at room
temperature (20 ± 2 oC) where relative humidity was 50 ± 5 % using facilities
available at the Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey
University, New Zealand. A Pulling rate of 600 mm/min was employed. The full
scale load is 500 Newton (N) (50 Kg). Leaf clamp distance was set 30 mm apart
to fit the size of the leaves. Leaves were cut into 10 mm x 40 mm size with midrib
intact to fit the clamp distance. The tensile testing was continued until five
similar leaves gave a reproducible reading.
Plate 5.3 F. benjamina leaves being tested using TA.XT Plus, Texture analyser
stable micro system at Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human
Health, Massey University, New Zealand.
5.2.4 Chemical analysis
Chemical analysis of fodder plant samples were carried out using facilities
available at the Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Massey
University, New Zealand based on the Association of Official Analytical Chemist
(AOAC) methods. Daily sub-samples of 200 g fresh leaves from each browse
species were taken and stored in fridge. On completion of the four days trial, the
sub-samples were bulked together, mixed well, and a final sample of 200 g
each of F. benjamina, Poplar and Willow was separated for freeze drying and
chemical analysis. The samples were ground to pass through 1 mm sieve and
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
86
were analysed for neutral detergent fibre (NDF), (van Goest et al, 1991) organic
matter digestibility (OMD) (Roughan and Holland, 1997) and crude protein (CP)
and ash. For CP, (C P =N 6·25) total nitrogen (N) was determined by
combustion ("Dumas") procedure (AOAC 2000b) using a LECO nitrogen
analyzer (LECO Corporation, St. Joseph, MI, USA). For DM, convection oven
was used (AOAC 2000a), In vitro DMD, in vitro DOMD and in vitro OMD were
calculated on DM basis using forage tree in vivo standards. In vitro gas
production technique used was calibrated with standards obtained in vivo
(McWilliam, 2005).
5.2.5 Statistical analysis
The data were analysed in a factorial experiment (split plot) using General
Linear Model (GLM) procedure (SAS, 2001). The analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was conducted and mean intake of different fodder species were compared
using least significant difference (LSD). The following statistical models were
used to analyse the data:
(1) Tensile strength of leaves (Table 5.5);
Proc glm;
Class treatment replicates;
Model Force_N = treatment replication/ss1;
Means treatment replicates/lsd;
Lsmeans treatment / stderr tdiff;
Run;
(2) Preferential browse intake (g DM/sheep/day = Table 5.2)
Proc glm;
Class species sheep days;
Model Intake = species sheep days species*sheep species*days
sheep*days/ss1;
Means species sheep days species*sheep species*days sheep*days/lsd;
Lsmeans species sheep days / stderr tdiff;
Run;
(3) Intake of Ficus alone (Table 5.3)
Proc glm;
Class treatment rep;
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
87
Model Intake = treatment /ss1;
Means treatment rep /lsd;
Run;
(Note: rep= sheep in case of no 3)
(4) Rate of browse intake (Table 5.4)
Proc glm;
Class species time days;
Model Intake = species time days species*time /ss1;
Means species time days species*time /lsd;
Lsmeans species time species*time/stderr tdiff;
Run;
5.2.6 Tensile strength (Newton/leaf)
Fifteen raw data for tensile strength (Plate 5.3) were plotted against 15 means
pooled from 192 observations of sheep intake raw data. To match the equal
number of data for regression analysis, intake of Ficus (n=64) poplar (n=64) and
willow (n=64) recorded over 4 days using 16 sheep were pooled to 15 sets of
data which is equal number of data recorded for tensile strength of five leaves
from the same species (3 species x 5 leaves as replicates each species). While
pooling 192 observation into 15 sets; there were 13 data in each mean and the
last mean had only 10 data (182 observations were pooled into 14 means = 13
x 14 and the 15th or the last mean was made up of only 10 observations).
5.3 Results
5.3.1 Intake
Table 5.2 represents the total daily intake of three-fodder species F. benjamina,
Poplar and Willow. There was a significant interaction on intake of browse
between days and species (P=0.0206). Similarly, there was a significant
interaction between sheep and days (P = 0.0093). Intake of Poplar and Willow
was significantly higher than Ficus (P=0.0001).
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
88
Table 5.2 Preferential intake of fodder (gDM/sheep/45 mins).
Days Ficus Poplar Willow Total
1 27 107 91 226
2 15 102 79 197
3 16 92 92 200
4 15 122 117 255
Mean 18 106 95 220
SEM ± 3.19
Significance Probability
Days 0.0010
Species <0.0001
Species*days 0.0206
Sheep*days 0.0093
Table 5.3 presents the intake of Ficus only and clearly demonstrates that given
no choice sheep will eat F. benjamina in reasonable amounts. There was no
significant effect between the two 45 minute treatments. When given no choice,
intake of F. benjamina was 89 g/sheep compared to an average of 18.56
g/sheep (range 15.13 g to 27.17 g/sheep) when offered with Poplar and Willow
(Table 5.3).
Table 5.3 Intake of Ficus alone (gDM/sheep± SEM)
g DM/sheep (± SEM)
First 45 minute 89± 22.98
Second 45 minutes 64 ± 7.2
LSD 77.9
Significance Probability
Treatment 0.3875
Replicates 0.5227
5.3.2 Rate of intake
Intake rate had a significant interaction (Table 5.4) between time and species (P
= <0.0001). Rate of intake of Poplar and Willow species was significantly higher
(P = <0.0001) than Ficus. The rate of intake was higher for the first 15 minutes
and decreased significantly (P = <0.0001) over the second and third 15 minute
periods for Poplar and Willow indicating that successive units of fodder provide
less and less satisfaction to an animal, given that the previous units already
have been consumed.
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
89
Table 5.4 Rate of browse intake in 15 x 3 minutes.
Time in minutes Ficus Poplar Willow
First-15 5.5 72.1 60.9
Second-15 7.3 20.2 23.2
Third-15 5.7 13.9 10.9
SEM 2.2
Significance Probability
Time <0.0001
Species <0.0001
Species* time <0.0001
Table 5.5 represents the tensile force (Newton/leaf) that is used by sheep to
tear the leaves from F. benjamina, poplar and willow. Results clearly
demonstrated that the fodder tree species requiring minimum force to browse
(Willow) showed higher rate of intake as compared to species (Ficus) that
require a higher force to tear.
Table 5.5 Tensile strength (Newton/leaf) required for breaking leaves.
Tensile strength Ficus Poplar Willow
Newton/leaf 21 14.7 14.6
SEM 0.84
Significance Probability
Treatment <0.0001
Note: Ficus: randomly selected leaves from a 25 month old glasshouse tree
tested on 29 March 2006
y = -10.037x + 241.54
R2 = 0.73
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
10 15 20 25
Newton/leaf Intake DM g/sheep/15 min
Figure 5.1 Relationship between tensile strength (Newton/leaf) and dry matter
intake (DM g/sheep/45 min).
Willow Ficus Poplar
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
90
There was a strong negative correlation (r = 0.73) between the leaf strength
(measured in Newton) with DM intake by sheep. The stronger the leaves
(higher tensile strength required) the less will be the DM intake. The relationship
between leaf strength and DM intake was linear (Figure 5.1). The leaves of
Ficus species required the greatest force (21.0 ± 1.20 Newton) to tear
compared to poplar and willow, 14.6 ± 0.54 and 14.7 ± 0.73 respectively.
5.3.3 Nutritive values
Table 5.6 Approximate values of browse used in the experiment.
Fresh basis
% Dry matter Ash g/kg Protein g/kg NDF g/kg
Ficus 38.13 42.9 41.1 155.2
Poplar 32.28 24.8 40.4 104.3
Willow 33.31 22.6 50.0 97.1
DM basis
Protein g/kg NDF g/kg Ficus
107.8 407
Poplar 125.1 323.1
Willow 150.2 291.5
DM basis
In vitro DOMD % In vitro OMD %
Ficus 59.07 66.64
Poplar 65.86 71.65
Willow 71.04 76.2
Note: In vitro digestibility was calculated using forage tree in vivo standards.
DM = Dry matter; DOMD = Digestible organic matter in the DM; OMD = Organic matter
digestibility; NDF = Neutral detergent fibre
Table 5.6 presents the nutritive value of fodder leaves on fresh and dry matter
basis. The DM results clearly indicate that Ficus has the highest NDF and ash
and lowest CP compared to poplar and willow. Willow was found to have the
highest CP, and the lowest NDF and ash. Likewise, NDF, CP and ash of Poplar
was between Ficus and Willow (Table 5.6). Willow was the most highly
digestible followed by Poplar and Ficus. These results clearly indicated that
Ficus was the least digestible fodder in the treatment.
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
91
5.4 Discussion
In this experiment, poplar was the most preferred fodder tree of the three
species, followed by willow (second) and F. benjamina (third), respectively.
Preference ranking was determined by relative intake in a free-choice trials
using methods described by Hodgson (1979), where preference is a general
term used for the discrimination exerted by animals between species offered
(Table 5.2). A similar method of direct feeding observation was also used by
Salem et al., (1994). Selection happens when a food item is examined by the
herbivore and is ingested or rejected (Wright & Cannon, 2001; Wright &
Westoby, 2003). Preferences are influenced by physical and chemical
properties of the fodder species and the age of both plant and animal (Tribe,
1950). There is a deliberate preference for feeds which can be eaten faster
(Kenney & Black, 1984).
Regarding the stepwise procedure to examine animal preferences on browse
species, there is no fixed agreement among applied research scientists on the
time allocated for sheep intake recording. Different durations have been
reported; some trials have been limited to 1-min periods (Kenney & Black,
1984), 15 minutes (Karda, et al., 1998) similar to this experiment, 30 minutes
(Smith, et al., 1997), 2 hours (Pande, et al., 2002), and one day after the start
of the intake trial (Mill, et al, 1988). An experiment lasting months and seasons
was also reported from Northern Kenya (Lusigi, et al., 1986). Similarly, the
number of sheep used to examine the rate of intake varies from four
(Colebrook, et al., 1985; Salem et al., 1994), six (Kenney & Black, 1984), eight
(Bamikole et al., 2004), 12 (Morand-Fehr, et al., 2006) and 20 (Adjorlolo, et al.,
2004), whereas 16 mature Romney sheep were used in this trial.
The amount and the rate of DM intake of F. benjamina (g/sheep/day) was found
to be significantly lower than those of Willow and Poplar species (Table 5.2 and
5.3). Bamikole, et al.,. (2004) examined the five species of Ficus in Nigeria and
found that F. benjamina was the most preferred tree fodder species and the
order of preference was F. benjamina, F. thonningii, F. mucoso, F. religiosa, F.
polita. This contrasts with other authors’ assumptions of similarity in the amount
of intake between the species in this experiment. Average daily DM intake was
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
92
220 g/sheep (daily refers to 45 minutes only), which included 48% Poplar, 43%
Willow, and only 8% F. benjamina, indicating F. benjamina was not a good
choice for Romney sheep of New Zealand, which were lacking previous
experience on browsing hardy fodder trees species of Africa and Asia.
However, DM intake of F. benjamina alone was 89 g and 64 g/sheep for the
same period of time (first and second instances of 45 minutes) as against only
18 g/sheep when offered in cafeteria style. Given no choice, the amount of DM
intake of F. benjamina alone was 4.9 times (89 g) and 3.5 times (64 g) higher
than in combination with other tree fodder indicating F. benjamina can be a
good feed resource for dry and lean periods, but is unlikely to be the best
choice for the glut period.
The rate of DM intake between species was analysed and least squared means
were compared to find the relative rate of intake by sheep to verify the palatable
species identified by the gross intake above. The faster the rate of intake the
higher will be the intake per unit time indicating difference between palatable
and non-palatable fodder tree species. Palatability of diets can influence the
rate of intake very strongly (Morand-Fehr et al., 2006).
Among the factors contributing to low intake of Ficus, the strong force required
to detach the leaves from the tree was the most important. The peak force
required to break and detach the mid-rib of the leaves was recorded, analysed
and compared. The harder and drier the browse the greater the force required
to tear and hence the lower the intake. Fodder species requiring comparatively
less energy for the detachment of leaves by browsing animals are likely to be
preferred over tree species with leaves that require greater force to detach.
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
93
F. benjamina Poplar Willow
Plate 5.4 Easily distinguishable size of fodder tree leaves of F. benjamina,
Poplar and Willow fresh branches ready for intake trial.
Ficus was the toughest browse species. There was a negative linear
relationship (R2 = 0.73) between DMI and the force applied to tear a leaf (y=-
10.043x + 241.62). Each unit change in tensile strength of leaf (Newton) causes
10.043 gram change in intake. Leaves of Ficus have nearly double the time for
lignification compared to Poplar and Willow leaves, both of which are deciduous
and do not have leaves older than nine months. The common practice of
lopping fodder tree once a year leads to a predominant use of one year old
leaves of evergreen Ficus.
Mean DM intake per 45 min feeding period was greatest for Poplar and Willow,
followed by Ficus (Table 5.2). In contrast, intake of Poplar was significantly
higher than Willow, which could be related to its larger leaves (Plate 5.4) and
possibly lower tannin content (Kemp et al., 2003). Estimates of tannin content
are not available from this study, but the results indicate that the low preference
rating of Ficus reflected the relatively high structural strength of this species
irrespective of any biochemical limitations. The differences were consistent over
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
94
four days. Based on comparative intakes, Poplar and Willow were the most
palatable species, and Ficus was of substantially lower palatability (table 5.2)
The most important finding of this work is the linearity between browsing intake
(DM g/sheep/day) and equivalent breaking force applied by sheep to detach the
leaves from a particular browse tree species. This finding is supported by the
fact that, the higher the NDF value of a browse species the lower will be the
protein content and conversely, the lower the NDF value the higher the DM
protein content (Table 5.6). As NDF percentage increases, dry matter intake
generally decreases (Schroeder, 2006). The NDF value comprises the total cell
wall, which is composed of the acid detergent fibre (ADF) fraction plus
hemicelluloses (Schroeder, 2006), cellulose, lignin and neutral detergentinsoluble
nitrogen (bound protein). That reflects the amount of forage the animal
can consume (Hall, 2006). F. benjamina had a higher NDF than for Poplar and
Willow. Scientists from Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) found no
specific trend of distribution of lignin in tree fodder leaves available in the
eastern hills of Nepal (Khanal & Subba, 2001). Results of this experiment
suggest that sheep preferred to browse young and succulent leaves of Poplar
and Willow compared to hardy leaves with low moisture content of Ficus for
which sheep need to struggle for browsing. The lower the force required to
break the leaves of a fodder species, the easier it would be for the animal and
better the plant species as fodder (Table 5.5) However, there was no previous
work to compare with the breaking force.
5.4.1 Digestibility comparisons
Laboratory analysis clearly indicated that Willow leaves were the most
digestible followed by leaves from Poplar and F. benjamina (Table 5.6). Willow
was highest with in vitro OMD followed by Poplar and Ficus respectively. In
contrast, intake of Poplar was significantly higher than willow which could be
related to the relatively higher percentage of moisture, low content of
condensed tannin and bigger leaf size of Poplar (Plate 5.4). Willow (5.2%) has a
higher condensed tannin concentration (0.7 %: Kemp, et al., 2003) than Poplar
(Bamikole et al., 2004). Tannins are known anorexic compounds in fodder
plants. Estimation of tannin concentration are not available from this study, but
the results indicate that the low preference rating of Ficus reflected the relatively
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
95
high structural strength of leaves of this species irrespective of any biological
limitations.
The digestibility values were within preliminary criteria required for a tree or
shrub species to be recommended for further research and development (Kemp
et al., 2003). Lefroy (2002) suggested that species only be considered where
preliminary evidence is presented to demonstrate that they are capable of
meeting the basic requirements of cultivated forage species (accessible,
acceptable, sufficiently high in energy, protein, minerals and non-toxic in
nature), and, more specifically, edible dry matter production is in excess of
1t/ha/yr under cultivation with in vivo DMD greater than 55%.
Species are commonly advocated on the basis that they are observed to be
browsed by stock, or are regarded as valuable sources of feed during drought
(Lefroy, 2002). The results presented here support the call by Lefroy (2002) for
detection of browse species using specific criteria rather than anecdotal
observations.
5.5 Conclusions
The results based on the total intake, rate of intake, leaf strength and the DMD
of leaves clearly demonstrated that poplar was the most preferred
supplementary fodder tree species for Romney ewes followed by willow and F.
benjamina. One unit increase in Newton decreased voluntary feed intake by 10
g DM/sheep. F. benjamina is an evergreen tropical tree and is not suitable to
grow outside in temperate New Zealand. However, the in vivo DMD of F.
benjamina was 65%, which was above the 55% DMD requirement for a species
to be recommended for further investigation. Results obtained and methods
used in this study suggest that F. benjamina is sufficiently palatable and
digestible for use as supplementary fodder but that it is likely to offer lower feed
quality than the deciduous tree species evaluated.
Chapter 5 Exp. 3 Sheep preferences on Ficus benjamina, poplar and willow
96
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
97
CHAPTER 6
Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder; milk production
of water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) eating mixed diets
of F. glaberrima, A. lakoocha and rice straw (Oryza
savita) in the mountain ecosystem of Nepal
6.1 Introduction
In South Asia including Nepal, Pakistan and India, landless farmers often keep
one or a few buffaloes, cows or goats (APN, 2005). The future of hill farming
lies in the on-farm plantation (Dhakal & Lilleso, 2000) and its scientific
management. Planting Ficus trees could provide a sustainable supplement to
chronic lack of feed, producing up to 154.4 kg DM/tree/year (Chapter 4) which is
the highest edible biomass produced by a single fodder tree species in Nepal
particularly during the most critical fodder scarcity months of March to April
(Rana & Amatya, 2000) when deciduous Artocarpus have no leaves on them
Ficus are a preferred species for their quality, yield and availability of fresh and
green feed during the dry season (Dorji & Gyaltsen, 1998), but the potential
feeding value of F. glaberrima is unknown. Therefore, the objective in this study
was to compare feeding value of Ficus with Artocarpus before the latter
completes its senescence, and to create a standard database as a decision tool
for the selection of multipurpose trees (MFT) for mass scale planting and
renovation of degraded hills ( Kshatri, 2001).
6.2 Methods
The experiment was run for three periods of 20 days when 3-diets using a
mixture of straw and browse were fed to 6 animals in a replicated 3 x 3 Latin
square design. To avoid the carry-over effect of the previous diet, while
estimating DMI and MEI, faecal output and milk production, data were only
collected for the last four consecutive days of each period and treatment.
Management procedures are detailed below:
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
98
A 60 day trial started on 25 December 2004 examined the digestive and
lactation response and dry matter intake (DMI) of three mixed diets by "Lime"
dominant intermediate type hill buffalo breed originated from wild Arna, (B.
arnii). Three diets studied were (1) A. lakoocha, the best MFT of the area but
not available after February due to its deciduous nature (2) rice straw, which is
a common basal diet on which most ruminants survive particularly during the
dry season, supplemented with F. glaberrima and (3) F. glaberrima, a potential
supplement available throughout the year, described hereafter as "Artocarpus",
"straw" and "Ficus" respectively. Energy balances in buffalo were compared by
difference in metabolisable energy (ME) intake and ME output as total solids
(TS = % fat + % SNF) in milk produced daily by six lactating buffaloes.
6.2.1 Location
The research was conducted on-farm at Sunpadali village of Kalika-6, Kaski,
Pokhara Nepal, located at Latitude: 28 10' N to 28 16' N, and altitude 900 m that
represents typical habitat for smallholders in Nepal. The site was nearly at the
mid-altitude of the 1000 ± 500-metre range where Artocarpus and Ficus thrive
well. Sunpadali village elevation is from 700 m at Bijayapur stream to 1500 m
on "Kalikakot" hilltop of the village. Different species of fodder trees are
available within this range.
6.2.2 Collection of fodder tree foliage
The feeding trial started on 25 December 2004. Late in December, the dry
period begins and hill farms become brown. Farmers start lopping their
deciduous fodder trees first, saving the evergreen trees for the following driest
months of March to June. To avoid the scarcity of Artocarpus due to
senescence, the trial was ended on 22 February 2005 when nearly 30% leaves
were dropped and another 50% were turning yellow and ready to drop during
lopping. Dropped leaves were collected in a jute bag. About 90% of Artocarpus
lopping occurs from November to January (Chapter 3).
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
99
.
A. Ficus twigs separating after lopping.
D. Spring balance in use (capacity 100 kg). C. Artocarpus carrying to buffalo shed.
B. Artocarpus leaves collected in a bag.
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
100
Table 6.1 Daily timetable during experiment with lactating buffaloes in on-farm
conditions (Clean water was available to all buffaloes at all times).
Time Activities Descriptions (Milk and dung data recorded
simultaneously)
0500 Dung collection Dung excreted in past 24 hours collected in a gunny-bag
and put in a safe place for weighing after cleaning,
milking and feeding is over.
0530 Refusal collection Residual browse twigs and straw collected separately for
weighing after dung.
0600 Straw feeding (a) straw offer 0.98 kg - 1.25 kg per day depending on
BW, to four buffaloes.
(b) Offer 2 kg straw to 2 buffalo on straw diet
0630 Feeding
Concentrate
Offer 1/2 of 0.382 % body weight (BW) concentrate feed
(0.55 kg) give as slurry in 5 litre of water.
0700 Washing udder
and hand milking
Milk letdown takes 5 - 30 minutes depending upon
individual buffalo. Milking is convenient during eating
concentrates.
0800 Feeding
treatment diet
offer 1 of 3
2 buffaloes = Diet 1 = 10 kg Artocarpus
2 buffaloes = Diet 2 = 10kg Ficus
2 buffaloes = Diet 3 = 5 kg Ficus + 2 kg straw offered
separately to each buffalo in individual feeding box made
of bamboo (Table 6.4). Diets were continuously available.
1000 Weighing Left over twigs and straw weighed
1100 Planning for
tomorrow
Store and record checking to make sure that required
amount of Artocarpus, Ficus, Straw and concentrate is in
store and labour, fodder trees and equipment are in place
for use as and when needed
1400 Feeding
treatment diet
offer 2 of 3.
Repeat process mentioned at 0800 hours
1600 Milking Second milking of the day, while feeding 0.55 kg
concentrate.
2200 Feeding
treatment diet
offer 3 of 3.
Repeat process mentioned at 0800 hours
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
101
Branches were harvested on a weekly basis from trees located across about 25
square km area around the Sunpadali trial site. A total of 30 trees were bought
from 15 farmers. Lopped branches were approximately 1 – 2.5 m long with
basal diameter of less than 30 mm.
To avoid daily the chore of carrying un-necessary woody materials, at the site of
harvest the branches were further cut into edible size of less than 20 mm
diameter and about 100 cm long twigs with leaves and figs on them, and carried
to the trial site on the backs of people. Some trees were available as far as 10
km from the trial buffalo shed. Weekly lopping eases the preparatory work
involving finding daily labour for lopping, carrying, weighing and the rest of the
trial management with six lactating buffaloes. The twigs were weighed and
collected into 5 kg bundles for Ficus to supplement with rice straw, one bundle
each for morning and evening feeding. Artocarpus was prepared into 10 kg
bundles and both species were stored in a relatively cool and shady place to be
fed within 7 – 10 days.
Current farmers’ practices for managing local buffalo were used in this trial.
Details of the diets used in the trial are reported in table 6.1. There are three
types of feeds available during dry seasons in the Nepalese hill farms. Rice
straw is the most abundant followed by tree browse, and concentrate is the
most limited feed for animals. Concentrate is expensive and competes with
human food. Forage was offered at 0600, 0800, 1400 and 2200 hours daily
whereas concentrate was offered twice daily about 10 minutes before milking.
While sets of two buffaloes were eating Artocarpus only, Ficus only and straw
only, it comes to a mixture over a period of 24 hours, when treatment diets were
supplemented with 0.382 % of live weight of concentrate and 0.382 % of live
weight of straw. Thus individual feeds in the mixed diets were offered
separately, and not as any type of a mixture (Table 6.1). This procedure served
to limit the influence of selective behaviour on diet composition, and was based
on experience during pre-treatment observation of buffalo’s behaviour. The
daily work schedule followed for the management of the experiment is
presented in Table 6.1.
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
102
6.2.3 Experimental animals and management
All six buffaloes were calved for their first lactation aged 45 – 55 months within
45 days of each other with first and last calving on 16 September 2004 and 2
November 2004, respectively (Table 6.2). When 60 days experiment ended on
22 February 2005, they were within 145 days of their standard 305 days
lactation period. The standard 305 day lactation yield of Lime breed of buffalo is
962 litre, varying from 300 to 2300 litre (Shrestha, 2003). The age at first
calving, calving interval and calving to mating interval in Lime buffalo was 4.56
yrs, 600 days and 198 days, respectively, based on extensive survey of 11836
households with buffaloes in the Pokhara area (Shrestha 2003). This survey
also found an actual lactation length of 276 days as opposed to original 305
days standard lactation length.
Table 6.2 Date of calving and purchasing the milking buffaloes and milk yield
(L/buffalo) on the day of arrival at the site of experiment.
Name of
farmers from
whom trial
buffalo were
bought
Buffalos'
identification
(ID)
Date of
calving
Date of
purchase
and arrival
at
research
site
Milk yield
on the first
day of
arrival (L )
Walking
distance from
buffalo owner's
home to
research site
Dan Bahadur Db 16-Sep-04 8-Oct-04 1.50 1 km up hill
Vishnu Va 17-Sep-04 5-Nov-04 0.30 3 km down hill
Khum Bahadur Kb 19-Oct-04 19-Oct-04 1.00 0.5 km
Rishi Ram Rr 25-Oct-04 12-Nov-04 1.00 4 km down hill
Kamala Ka 26-Oct-04 9-Nov-04 1.50 0.5 km up hills
DataRam Dr 2-Nov-04 12-Nov-04 Nil 5 km down and
up hills, calf
suckle until
2pm
Milk and faecal samples were tested for the most common ailments of the area,
liver fluke and mastitis, on 18 November 2004. Three out of six buffaloes were
diagnosed as infected with liver fluke and all tested negative for mastitis,
(Veterinary hospital in Pokhara Nepal). They were drenched against liver fluke
and buffalo stomach worms and vaccinated against haemorrhagic septicaemia
(HS), which is a common ailment during the dry seasons when animals are
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
103
malnourished. Buffalo were housed in an ordinary 2.5 x 2.5 m ground floor shed
tethered by the neck with individual access to feeding and watering troughs.
Arrangements were made to protect animals from hailstorms and extremes of
cold weather.
6.2.4 Components of concentrate ration
The concentrate used in this trial was a mixture and was made up of particles of
60 % crushed maize, 20% ground soybeans, 15% wheat bran and 5% mineral
and was bought from the government’s Livestock Development Farm,
Lampatan Pokhara, Nepal. Crude protein in the concentrate was 15.26%. The
contribution of concentrate to total DMI (kg DM / buffalo/day) was 13 %, 15 %
and 17 % respectively for Artocarpus, straw and Ficus diets
6.2.5 Khole (Buffalo porridge)
"Khole" or Kundo ( Subba et al., 1994) is the local name given to a slurry type
of watery mixture constituting about 90 % water and only 10% concentrate and
table salt. Concentrate in the local farmers’ situations could be only rice bran,
wheat bran or maize flour or cake of any oil seeds which contains relatively
higher energy per unit weight compared to roughage.
6.2.6 Feeding of Artocarpus and Ficus
In this trial, similar to that of local farmers practice, whole branches of about 100
cm long and 20 mm diameter were provided to trial buffaloes, and amounts
offered and refused were recorded for analysis. Actual twig diameters of 20
samples per species were 6.4 ±0.35 and 8.8±0.46 mm for Ficus and Artocarpus
respectively. Length of untreated straw offered was about 100 cm and diameter
about 3 mm.
There were no references available to justify the choice of level of feedings;
however, the choice of treatment diet was based on the 30 days preliminary
feeding trial with the same buffalo before the actual trial. The diets were typical
of the procedures on local farms. Additionally choice of diet is also based on
local conditions and dry periods (personal experience). The amount of straw
offered (0.98 kg - 1.25 kg per day depending on BW) was based on the
assumption that, if buffaloes did not have a continuous habit of eating straw, it
would be hard for buffalo to adapt to an ad lib diet of straw after 20 days
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
104
continuously eating a fresh and green diet of Artocarpus or Ficus. Thus, straw
was offered to remind buffalo continuously that straw is an inescapable part of
their diets. Similarly, concentrate feed was offered at the rate of 0.382 % live
weight was based on the traditional system to supplement the poor quality straw
typically fed to lactating animals.
Table 6.3 Experimental diet eaten by lactating buffaloes.
Number Treatment diet Form Proportion
1 A. lakoocha Mixture
(90:10)
Ad lib Artocarpus + straw 0.98 kg - 1.25 kg per
day depending on BW and 0.382 % live weight
concentrate
2 Rice Straw Mixture
(53:47)
Ad lib Rice straw + 0.382 % live weight of
concentrate and fixed 3.38 kg DM, (47% of diet)
of F. glaberrima / buffalo/day divided for
morning and evening
3 F. glaberrima Mixture
(90:10)
Ad lib F. glaberrima straw 0.98 kg - 1.25 kg per
day depending on BW and 0.382 % live weight
concentrate
6.2.7 Dung collection
Gunny-bags were spread on the floor to prevent dung contamination with soils,
urine, mud and rainwater and other unwanted materials. It also prevented the
buffalo itself resting on dung, stepping on it, and kicking into pieces.
Dung was collected manually within five minutes of excretion and kept in a
polythene bag to protect against moisture loss until 0600 hrs next morning when
dung passed during last 24 hours was weighed and recorded (Lapitan et al.,
2004).
As there was no effect of heat during the night and animals were resting, dung
excreted during dark hours of 2200 to 0600 was collected at once in the
morning. This process was repeated for four days during 17th to 20th day of
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
105
treatment. Dung collected over this period was mixed for each animal and 0.5
kg dung was separated for dry matter estimation to determine in vivo DMD.
Plate 6. 1 Gunny-bags are hardly visible at the hind-quarters of resting
buffaloes after feeding and morning milking.
Plate 6.2 Buffaloes arranged to face away from the gutter for easy
observation and collection of dung.
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
106
Table 6.4 Order and combination of three diets and periods to for lactating
buffaloes.
Period Three sets
of two
buffaloes
I
25 December 2004 to
13 January 2005
II
14 January 2005 to
2 February 2005
III
3 February 2005 to
22 February 2005
Kb + Rr A. lakoocha Rice straw F. glaberrima
Kb + Rr Kb + Rr Kb + Rr
1 2 3
Va + Ka F. glaberrima A. lakoocha Rice straw
Va + Ka Va + Ka Va + Ka
3 1 2
Db + Dr Rice straw F. glaberrima A. lakoocha
Db + Dr Db + Dr Db + Dr
2 3 1
6.2.8 Body weight of lactating buffaloes
The weigh-band made by Henley-on-Thames, Oxon, World Concessionaires
Dalton Supplies Ltd, Telephone (0491) 419000, England, was used to estimate
the live body weight of buffaloes at the beginning and end of the experiment
using the following formula ( Shrestha, 2003).
10500
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( cm Chestgirth cm Chestgirth cm Bodyweight kg Bodyweight
× ×
=
Resulted change in body weight is for over all diet and periods.
6.2.9 Chemical analysis
Leaves, edible twigs and figs were collected covering the whole area and
altitudes during January and February 2005, when they were important fodder
for ruminants. One kg samples collected from individual trees (top, bottom,
inside and outside) in the canopy were bulked and representative samples of
0.5 kg were put in a polythene bag and within the same day samples were
transported to the laboratory. Dry matter was determined by drying the sample
at 60±3 oC to constant weight (AOAC, 2000b).
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
107
Dried sample was ground to pass a 1 mm diameter sieve and total nitrogen (N)
concentration was determined by using Dumas method (Leco Corporation, USA
1994) and organic matter (OM) by ashing samples for 16 h at 550 oC. Neutral
detergent fibre (NDF) was determined by the detergent procedure of van Soest
et al., (1991). In vitro OM digestibility (OMD) was determined by the enzymatic
method (Roughan & Holland, 1977), using separate standard curve prepared
from in vitro values for forage and willow fed to sheep. Metabolisable energy
(ME) in the diet was calculated as 16.3 x digestible organic matter/100 g DM
(DOMD) (Drew & Fennessy, 1980)
Details of proximate components analysed are reported in sections (A), (B) and
(C) of Table 6.5. The seven components of treatment diets and corresponding
numbers of samples analysed were; Artocarpus leaves 23, Ficus leaves 17,
Artocarpus twigs 4, Ficus twigs 2, Ficus buds 1, Ficus figs 1, and rice straw 3
samples. Despite limited samples, twigs of Artocarpus and the twigs, buds and
the figs of Ficus (Table 6.5) represent pioneer data of this kind; however their
contribution to overall diet was not the objective of the present study.
Dry matter (DM) varied from a maximum of 905 ± 8.6 g/kg to a minimum of 285
g/kg DM (n=1) for straw and Ficus buds respectively. Only one sample each of
the buds and figs of Ficus was analysed, so the results are indicative only.
However, these values were comparable to the fodder tree DM presented by
previous researchers in Nepal (Khanal & Subba, 2001).
6.2.10 Milk sampling and analysis
To estimate total solids (TS) in milk, a 100 ml milk sample was taken from each
buffalo daily during the last four days of each 20 day period and fat % and
solids not fat (TS % = SNF + fat) was determined. Fat % was determined using
Gerber butyrometers (ISO-488, 1983) and SNF % was determined using a
corrected lactometer (Lc) reading as follows .
TS = Lc 4 + (1.22 x fat %) + 0.72
SNF = TS – fat %
or = Lc 4 + (0.22 x fat %) + 0.72
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
108
It should be noted that the relationship between Lc and TS varies from country
to country depending on milk composition. The above formulae are called the
Richmond formulae and were calculated for Great Britain (O’Connor, 1995) and
are commonly used in Nepal as well.
The total solids content of milk is the total amount of material dispersed in the
aqueous phase, i.e. SNF = TS – % fat. The only accurate way to determine TS
is by evaporating the water from an accurately weighed sample. However, TS
can be estimated from the corrected lactometer reading. The results are not
likely to be very accurate because specific gravity is due to water, material less
dense than water (fat) and material denser than water (SNF). Therefore, milk
with high fat and SNF contents could have the same specific gravity as milk with
low fat and low SNF contents (Hemme, et al., 2003).
6.2.11 Nutritional value of diets
Estimate of ME and CP requirement and intake required some extrapolation
beyond normal ranges of diet and milk composition, and some assumption
about body weight changes (see section 6.2.11). However, the consistency of
estimates across diets and periods provides a reasonable basis for confidence
the outcomes of an experiment carried out in difficult conditions.
Using the direct method, the apparent digestibility of each diet was estimated.
The difference between the amounts of DM ingested and excreted, expressed
as a proportion of DM ingested, was estimated and the ME content of each
diets was calculated as follows;
% Dry matter digestibility 100 ) ( x
FoodDM
FaecesDM FoodDM DMD -
= (1)
% Digestibility of the organic matter (OMD)
=
( )
100 ×
-
OM Food
OM Faeces OM Food
(2)
% Digestible organic matter in dry matter (DOMD)
=
( )
100
) 100 % Ash OMD -
(3)
DOMD % = 0.98 DMD % - 4.8
Metabolisable energy in Food (MEF) = 0.16 DOMD %
OM = Organic matter (MAFF, 1975).
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
109
In vivo digestibility of DM, OM, digestible organic matter in the dry matter and
ME concentration were calculated. ME kg-1 was estimated as DOMD (kg DOM
kg DM -1 ) multiplied by x16.3 (Drew & Fennessy, 1980)
Estimates of the ME requirements of the buffalo for maintenance and lactation
were derived from Holmes et al., (2002) assuming zero body weight changes,
(See section 6.3.6) These values were used to calculate the balance between
metabolisable energy intake and requirement (Baumgard et al., 2006; MAFF,
1975) for individual animals and periods.
Crude protein (CP) requirements for maintenance were calculated as follows;
Body maintenance, CP = 5.43g/kgW0.75
CP requirement for 1 kg fat corrected milk (FCM) milk production=90.3
g/kgW0.75 (Paul, et al., 2002)
FCM = (milk produced x 0.15) + (milk produced x 0.6)(Rice, et al., 1970)
6.2.12 Statistical analysis
A mixed "repeated measure" model was used to test the effect of treatment on
experimental results (milk solids production by lactating buffaloes as response
to diet in this case) measured repeatedly over time (Kaps & Lamberson, 2004).
Analysis was via maximizing likelihood of observed values rather than ANOVA's
approach of minimizing error variance. Mixed = fixed + random variation
(Hopkins, 2003). Originally data were collected using 3 treatments x 3 periods
of 20 days, with sampling and measurement taken over the last 4 days of each
period in a latin square design (Table 6.4) with two replicates of animals per
square. However, results were analyzed using a mixed procedure.
The statistical analytical system (SAS) model used for analysis was:
Proc mixed data=reps;
Class period buff treatment;
Model TS = period treatment;
Repeated /type=cs sub=buff (treatment);
LSMEANS period treatment/diff;
Run;
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
110
The "class" statement defines categorical variables. The "model" statement
defines the dependent variable (e. g: TS; total solids in milk), and independent
variables period and treatment. The "repeated" statement defines the variable
structure or repeated measurements. The subject (sub=buff) defines the
variable on which repeated measurements were taken. The type of variancecovariance
structure is called compound symmetry (type=cs), because it is
diagonally symmetric and it is a compound of two variances. The LSMEANS
statement calculates the treatment means (Kaps & Lamberson, 2004).
None of the period and diet interactions in these analyses were significant, so
results are reported as main effects of period and diet.
6.2.13 Offered and refused diet
Figure 6.1 represents the actual amount of fresh straw + Ficus eaten by a
buffalo (Va) during period III. Ficus and straw refusal was 23 ± 3% and 31 ± 2 %
(SE), respectively, on a fresh matter basis indicating greater than 69% of the
offered feed diet was consumed. (Note = Mean DMI as percent of LW was 1.94
kg DM (n=20) (range = 1.5 – 2.27 % of the LW) per day, DMI value greater than
2% of LW was recorded during 8 out of 20 days period for this particular buffalo
with straw diet).
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
3/02/2005
4/02/2005
5/02/2005
6/02/2005
7/02/2005
8/02/2005
9/02/2005
10/02/2005
11/02/2005
12/02/2005
13/02/2005
14/02/2005
15/02/2005
16/02/2005
17/02/2005
18/02/2005
19/02/2005
20/02/2005
21/02/2005
22/02/2005
One of three periods of 20 days
kg/buffalo/day
Ficus Offered Ficus Refused Straw Offered Straw Refused
Figure 6.1 An example of offered and refused diet by one of two buffaloes
under straw diet receiving (constant fresh twigs of Ficus = 10 kg daily) 47% DM
of diet + 53 % straw.
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
111
6.3 Results
6.3.1 Nutritive values
The nutritional components of all diets (g/kg DM) (Table 6.5) were analysed at
Lumle Agricultural Centre Pokhara Nepal and were used to calculate nutrient
digestibility, metabolic energy of feed and energy balance in lactating buffaloes
in the experiment.
Table 6.5 Chemical composition of diet components (g/km DM).
# = Neutral Cellulose Digestibility (NCD) values presented in Table 6.5 were
taken from Subba 1998.
Dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP) and ash content of experimental diets
including (Table 6.5) fodder tree leaves ranged from 385 and 905, 37 to 152, 74
Chemical composition (g/kg DM)
g/kg fresh wt. g/kg DM
(A) Descriptions DM
Ash CF
CP
NDF ADF ADL
NCD
#
(1) Artocarpus leaves
Mean (n= 23) 367 152 212 125 439 380 210 525
Standard Error ( ±) 7 7 8 3 8 11 8 12
(3) Ficus leaves
Mean (n = 17) 341 134 226 97 432 372 224 505
Standard Error ( ±) 8 7 9 2 5 6 5 13
(4) Artocarpus twigs
Mean (n = 4) 333 132 249 68 486 440 266 472
Standard Error ( ±) 32 24 20 2 6 4 10 28
(5) Ficus twigs
Mean ( n = 2) 387 112 314 56 532 435 262 379
Standard Error ( ±) 12 17 8 1 13 21 9 11
Ficus ( n = 1)
Edible buds 285 74 151 66 339 286 209 612
Edible figs 350 89 356 69 539 445 271 320
(B) Rice straw
Mean (n= 3 ) 905 128 397 37 623 480 59 262
Standard Error ( ±) 8 16 7 2 17 21 9 10
(C) Concentrate 895 102 82 152 NA NA NA NA
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
112
to 152 g/kg DM, respectively. Acid detergent fibre was 286 to 480 g/kg DM and
lignin 69 to 266 g/kg DM. Neutral cellulase digestibility (NCD) of the leaves
varied greatly among the diets and ranges between 262 to 612 g/kg DM. Ash
contents ranged from a high of 152.7 ± 7.8 g/kg DM to a low of 74 g/kg DM
(Table 6.5) respectively for leaves of Artocarpus and Ficus buds.
6.3.2 Live weight changes
The body condition of the six trial buffaloes was normal when measured finally
on 14 March 2005. Body weight measurement was taken twice during the 80
days period that includes the 20 day pre-experimental period. Initial
measurement was taken on 22 December 2004 with resulting body weight
ranges from 279 to 375 kg, whereas the final body weight range was 268 to 372
kg with a mean of 319 ±16 and 314 ±16 kg respectively, indicating only a minor
decline in LW during the trial.
6.3.3 Voluntary Intake of dry matter
The DMI and faecal DM output (kg DM/buffalo/day), and DMD percent are
presented in Table 6.6. DMI differed significantly between diets (P=0.0001),
being highest for the Artocarpus and lowest for the Ficus diet, both in absolute
terms and as a percentage of body weight. DMD was not significantly different
between diets (P= 0.32) and periods (P= 0.49).
Table 6.6 Dry matter intake (DMI), faecal dry matter (FDM) and dry matter
digestibility percentage.
Treatments DMI (kg) DMI (% of BW) FDM (kg) DMD % ME MJ/kg DM
Period 1 7.47 2.35 2.83 60.52 8.72
Period 2 7.4 2.30 2.61 64.56 9.35
Period 3 7.09 2.24 2.59 62.46 9.02
Treatment
Artocarpus 8.42 2.66 3.07 62.92 9.09
Straw 7.17 2.27 2.49 64.92 9.41
Ficus 6.39 2.02 2.48 59.71 8.59
SE 0.23 0.1064 0.16 2.35 0.36
Significance
Period 0.4833 0.6631 0.5537 0.4968 0.4978
Treatment 0.0001 0.0032 0.044 0.3181 0.3168
BW= body weight for each animals at the start of the experiment.
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
113
6.3.4 Milk yield and composition
Fat % increased progressively from period 1 to period 3 (P=0.0097). Milk yield
and composition did not differ between diets (Table 6.7).
Table 6.7 Milk yield, percentage of fat, solids not fat (SNF), total solids (TS),
milk gravity and production of total milk solids (kg/buffalo/day)
Milk composition
Treatments Milk yield
Ltr/buff/day
Fat % SNF% TS% Milk
gravity
TS
(kg/buffalo/day)
Period 1 2.3 7.48 9.18 16.67 1.027 0.383
Period 2 2.2 8.23 9.36 17.6 1.027 0.378
Period 3 1.9 8.64 9.44 18.09 1.027 0.341
Treatment
Artocarpus 2.54 7.84 9.4 17.25 1.027 0.437
Rice straw 1.92 8.07 9.39 17.46 1.026 0.332
Ficus 1.88 8.45 9.2 17.65 1.027 0.332
SE 0.25 0.22 0.111 0.284 0.0004 47.890
Significance
Period 0.51 0.0097 0.284 0.0114 0.9968 0.7988
Treatment 0.14 0.2022 0.3888 0.6145 0.0963 0.2558
6.3.5 Metabolisable energy balance
Metabolisable energy intake (MEI) and balances in trial buffalo are presented in
Table 6.8. Requirements of ME ranged from 67.82 – 74.93 MJ / buffalo /day
and were not significantly different between period and diets. MEI was not
different between periods, but was different between diets (P= <0.0001). MEI of
the Ficus diet was only 72% and 81 % that of Artocarpus and straw diet
respectively.
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
114
Table 6.8 Metabolisable Energy (MJ ME/buffalo/day) balance in lactating
buffaloes.
Energy requirement and milk solids production in lactating buffaloes
based on body weight (MJ ME/buff/day).
Treatments
Maintenance Production Total
requirement
Total intake
(MEI)
Energy
Balance
Period 1 45.22 26.05 71.28 67.74 -3.54
Period 2 45.20 25.7 70.90 67.01 -3.89
Period 3 45.22 23.19 68.41 67.17 -4.24
Treatment
Artocarpus 45.20 29.73 74.93 76.53 1.60
Straw 45.22 22.62 67.82 67.48 -0.34
Ficus 45.22 22.6 67.85 54.90 -12.94
SE 1.79 2.78 4.38 2.10 3.70
Significance
Period 0.9999 0.7359 0.8822 0.4991 0.9912
Treatment 0.9999 0.1534 0.4402 <0.0001 0.0318
The ME balance was greater for the Artocarpus than the Ficus diet (+ 1.6 vs -
12.9 ± 3.77 MJ ME/buffalo/day, P=0.0318) but did not differ between Artocarpus
and the combined straw/Ficus diets (+1.6 vs -0.34±3.7 MJ ME). ME balance did
not differ between periods.
6.3.6 Crude protein balance
Table 6.9 shows CP requirement, intake and balance. The CP balance was
positive for the Artocarpus diet, but negative for the other two diets and in all the
periods.
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
115
Table 6.9 Crude protein (CP) requirement, (g/kg) intake and balance
(g/buffalo/day).
CP balance in lactating buffaloes
Treatment Maintainance 6%
FCM
kg
Required
for milk
production
Total CP
requirement
CP
Intake
CP
balance
Period 1 407.00 3.95 356.69 763.69 651.15 -112.54
Period 2 406.00 3.92 353.98 759.98 651.15 -108.83
Period 3 407.00 3.57 322.37 729.37 651.15 -78.22
Artocarpus 406.00 4.51 407.25 813.25 1059.49 246.24
Straw 407.00 3.42 308.83 715.83 269.88 -445.95
Ficus 407.00 3.52 317.86 724.86 624.09 -100.77
SE
Period 16.19 0.42 - - -
Treatment 16.19 0.42 -
Significance
Period 0.99 0.7862 - - -
Treatment 0.99 0.1773 - - -
NA = Not analysed due to infinite likelihoods
6.4 Discussion
The diets used in this experiment were designed to take account of the limited
forage resources available to farmers in Nepal. The first section of this
discussion (section 6.4.1) deals with some of the potential issues unsolved, in
order to provide a context for evaluation of the experimental results which are
dealt with in the following sections.
6.4.1 Feeding Practices in Nepal
The fodder tree evaluation trial using six lactating buffalo started on 25
December 2004 and ended on 22 February 2005 in an on-farm stall-feeding
management system. The objective of selecting these dates was to use the
latest period of availability of deciduous Artocarpus before its senescence, and
to compare its feeding value with evergreen Ficus and rice straw. The diets
used were representative of the diets used by local farmers. Hand milking was
done in this trial, as it is sole milking practice all over Nepal.
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
116
Whole branches of Artocarpus and Ficus that were less than 20 mm in diameter
and about 100 cm in length were offered to lactating buffaloes as is the usual
practice of the area and these branches were composed of leaves, buds/figs,
bark, hardwood and soft wood of unknown proportions. About 100 cm long rice
straws were offered whole without cutting into pieces. Evaluation of all these
components was beyond the scope of this study, however, efforts were made to
generate maximum possible information about the lactating buffalo’s energy
and protein balance utilising limited resources in the complex subsistence hill
farms.
On 25 December 2004 when the feeding trial started, the Artocarpus was
already in the process of senescence. Farmers who have Artocarpus tree and
lactating buffaloes try to prolong the period of availability of leaves to sustain
milk production but, when they sell the trees to other farmers, they want their
trees to be lopped first, so that they will get a good crop of leaves next year.
The original objective was to compare the DMI (kg/buffalo/day) of diets with
corresponding milk yield (Litre/buffalo/day) to select the best MFT. Later on the
proposal was upgraded to collect data for analysing energy balance in lactating
buffaloes to select the best MFT for renovation of degraded hills. DMI and DMD
did not change over periods, suggesting that browse changes over the time of
the trial were not large. Artocarpus leaves seen on the trees on 25 December
2004 were denser and greener compared to only about 50% leaves intact on
trees that also turned yellowish in colour and were ready to drop within a week
on 22 February 2005. Similarly, leaves of Ficus might have developed into more
fibrous and less digestible form with age but this was not investigated due to the
limited resources of this study. The author has noted a number of buffaloes
browsing and waiting under Ficus trees to eat any dropped leaves. No matter
how hard the leaves may be, they will be eaten up immediately after dropping
by waiting ruminants and will not be wasted. During the dry season, grazed
pasture becomes a loitering place (Rajbhandary & Shah, 1981) and the only
thing ruminants may find to eat is a few dropped leaves under the canopy of the
MFT.
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
117
The buffaloes remained healthy with normal levels of production throughout the
60-days of the trial, and all six buffaloes were served naturally using buffalo bull
as a preparation for their second lactation. Only one buffalo did not conceive
even after third consecutive mating following 21 days cycle. As of 9 January
2007, four out of six buffaloes were still producing milk for their third lactation;
however, two buffaloes were sold for meat purpose, indicating 66% trial
buffaloes are still producing economic benefit to local farmers (Personal
communication). Of the various reasons for infertility of buffaloes in the area
2.53 to 3.90 %, was contributed by chromosomal abnormality (Shrestha, 2003).
6.4.2 Feeding period effects
Milk fat content increased significantly over the course of the experiment (Table
6.7), presumably reflecting the normal increase in milk fat content during the
course of lactation (Holmes et al.,., 2002), but no other parameters of diet,
nutrient intake or milk production differed across periods. This is surprising
given the expectation that forage quality would decline with time, particularly in
the Artocarpus diet (see chapter 2 and section 6.2.11).
6.4.3 Diet contrasts
Farmers are realising that feeds available are not adequate in nutrients and
hence the practice of supplementing concentrate is followed. A daily allowance
of about 1± 0.5 kg mixture of maize, soybean or rice-bran or only one of them is
being used as concentrate. Compared to fodder leaves, concentrate feed is rich
in mineral nutrients as it is incorporated with 5% mineral supplement. However,
most of the fodder tree leaves had higher calcium contents, more than 1% on
DM basis with values as high as 5.72% in Brassaiopsis hainla. Artocarpus and
Ficus have a calcium content of 1.38+-0.21 and 0.39 +-0.06 % of DM
respectively which is higher than the normal requirement (Khanal & Subba,
2001). The concentrate diet is used mainly after boiling and cooling to 20 to 30o
centigrade, because local farmers believe that boiling will increase its nutritive
value. However, in this trial boiling was not practiced to save the firewood,
labour, time and also to demonstrate to local farmers that buffalo keep
producing milk even if the concentrate is not boiled. The practice of boiling
concentrate feed in hill farms needs to be abolished.
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
118
The nutrient content of the experimental diets offered to the trial buffaloes
(Table 6.5) were typical of hill farms and typical of the dry months of January
and February. All were low in nutrients and digestibility. CP for example was the
most limiting nutrient for lactating animals during the dry season. Therefore
lactating animals’ on the sole diet of straw require supplementary feeding to
maintain normal body functions. CP content of Artocarpus and Ficus was only
83% and 59% that of the same species reported by Khanal and Subba (2001)
without specifying the date of leaf sample collection. However all of the
proximate values were within the range reported by Subba (1998) in Nepal.
Twigs were part of the diet. Diameter of Ficus twigs ranged from 3.78 mm –
15.5 and those of Artocarpus from 1.2 mm – 19.4 mm with means of 6.38 mm
and 8.81 mm respectively. Dairy cows in New Zealand offered browse material
from 20 mm ate similar sized branches (Kemp et al., 2001).
Among the diets, the lowest ME concentration (8.59 MJ ME /kg DM Ficus)
(Table 6.6) was higher than the 8.2 MJ/kg DM of short drought pasture in New
Zealand (Pitta et. al., 2006). Similar energy concentrations of 7.7 and 10.5 MJ
ME /kg DM for Ficus semicordata and Ficus nemoralis respectively were
reported by Khanal & Subba (2001) without specifying the season of sampling.
Only one out of six buffaloes in this trial gained body weight (5) kg, which is
negligible in terms of body size of large ruminants. Both energy and CP values
were marginal for lactating animals, but straw and Ficus are the only practical
feeds available to farmers. Because Artocarpus is a deciduous MFT, its twigs
will become rare after February until next lopping.
There was no significant difference in DMI of Artocarpus between periods
despite a decline in the properties of leaf and increased maturity of leaves.
Table 6.6 shows that DMI ranged from 2.1 to 2.6 % of LW of the lactating
buffaloes. This result is similar to that found by Indian scientists (Sharma, et al.,
2004). Comparatively low daily intakes of 1.3% to 1.7% of LW for maintenance
were observed in a metabolism trial with Brahman cattle, swamp buffalo and
native cattle in Thailand (Kawashima, 2006). Thorne, et al.,. (2000) found that
farmers in the eastern hills of Nepal are offering 4.0 to 5.5 % of live weight of
buffalo cows and oxen.
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
119
DMI recorded as a percent of BW ranges from 2.0 - 4.5 % for bovine species
(Hendy et al., 2000). Thus, the DMI results of this experiment appear to be
reasonably realistic estimates.
A. lakoocha was superior to F. glaberrima in terms of DM and ME intake (Table
6.6 and 6.8), though estimates of digestibility and ME contents for the two diets
did not differ (Table 6.6). The intake differences observed may be attributable in
part to greater CP content in leaves and twigs of A. lakoocha than F. glaberrima
(Table 6.5 and 6.8).
The DMI of browse material is influenced by biophysical and chemical
properties of feed to the extent to which they can be relied upon as feed
resources (Dzowela, et al., 1997). Secondary compounds like condensed tannin
affect the intake and digestibility of protein (Barry & McNabb, 1999). The leaf
area, shape, size, and texture influence the rate of eating. The actual mean leaf
area of 556 cm2/leaf for A. lakoocha is 10.8 times higher than 51.37 cm2/leaf of
F. glaberrima (Singh, 2001). This implies that the bigger the size of leaves the
higher will be the intake and consumption efficiency. Intake of Ficus was 24 %
(Artocarpus 8.42 - 6.39 kg Ficus = 2.03 kg DM) less compared to intake of 90%
Artocarpus. Presumably, evergreen leaves of Ficus would have been
progressively lignified and harder to chew with age compared to Artocarpus,
and this could have contributed to low intake of Ficus, reinforcing the effects of
lower energy and protein content in the 90% Ficus (Table 6.6). However, Ficus
is the only reliable sources of green feed supplement available in the absence
of Artocarpus and all other deciduous MFT during dry seasons.
Moringa oleifera supplemented at 2 to 3 kg DM /day on Brachiaria brizantha hay
ad libitum, was also found to improve DMI, nutrient digestibility and milk yield of
dairy cattle (Nadir, et al., 2006). But milk yield and composition differ within and
between breeds in cows (Rice et al., 1970), and such differences were
observed in Nepali hill buffaloes (Shrestha, 2003).
The mixed diet composed of 53% unchopped straw and 47% F. glaberrima had
significantly grater dry matter and ME intake than F. glaberrima alone (Table 6.6
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
120
and 6.8) and was also superior in digestibility and ME content , though those
differences were not significant (Table 6.6) the comparatively high energy value
of the straw/Ficus diet relative to F. glaberrima alone (Table 6.6), and in
contrast to estimated value of 5.15 Mj ME/kg DM for straw alone (Baumgard et
al., 2006) suggest a significant interaction between the diet constituents. There
was probably a direct contribution of F. glaberrima to the CP content of the
mixed diet (Table 6.5), and a part contribution from condensed tannins in Ficus
to the efficiency of use of the limited content of CP in the diet (see section 6.4.4)
the buffalo on all these diets received 1.1 kg DM of concentrate per day.
Results of this study suggest that there is little difference in nutritive value
between diets of Artocarpus and of straw supplemented with 47% Ficus. Thus,
in the absence of Artocarpus, a Ficus supplement to the basal diet of straw
would serve as an alternative diet during deciduous seasons. The enhanced
feeding value of the straw offered in conjunction with Ficus indicates the
potential value of the mixed diet for farmers.
Notable differences were found in fibre content, in vitro dry matter digestibility,
acceptability and intake by livestock and therefore, their potential in affecting
animal productivity (Dzowela et al., 1997). Most rations are found to be
unbalanced in at least one factor, either ME or CP, because farmers feed
similar rations to all cows regardless of milk yield and other such indices in
Vietnam (Duc Vu, et al., 1999). Researchers from Kenya reported that dairy
heifers were able to select the part of the tree fodder with higher content of CP,
higher in vitro digestibility and higher rumen degradability than the average of
the offered supplement (Roothaert, 1999).
In this study milk yield was not affected by diet (Table 6.7), in contrast to the
significantly higher milk yield reported in buffaloes eating Artocarpus leaves at
4% of LW compared with untreated rice straw (Rana & Amatya, 2000). Various
factors related to browse quality used, season of trial, proportion of straw and
chemical composition of feed could have contributed to reduce the effect of diet
in this study. Rana & Amatya (2000) did not mention whether the trial was
conducted at lean period of Artocarpus or not. Also CP concentration (131 g/kg
DM) and DMI (9.72 kg DM/buffalo/day) was higher in his study. CP content of
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
121
Artocarpus in November was 14 % whereas it was only 10.38% in February
(Kaphle & Devkota, 2000). Presumably, dry seasons and lignified Artocarpus
and single season trial could have contributed to limit the effect of diet. Fat %
and TS % were similar to those found by Chinese and Nepali researchers (Han
et al., 2006; Rana et al., 2000).
Energy balance was not significantly different between periods, but was
significant between diets (Table 6.8). LW changes were small, confirming the
relatively small differences calculated between intake and requirements. The
potential energy balance of 1.60 MJ ME/buffalo/day while on diets of Artocarpus
and negative balance of -0.3425 MJ ME/buffalo/day while on diet of straw and
Ficus were not significantly different (P=0.7160). A negative balance of -12.94
MJ ME /buffalo/day on the diet of 90% Ficus indicates that the buffaloes were
not able to eat enough Ficus as they eat Artocarpus to meet their energy
requirements (Table 6.8) and hence buffaloes were mobilising an equivalent
body reserve and losing body weight to produce milk. Average BW of buffalo
dropped to 314 ± 15 kg from its original 318 ± 15 kg in 80 days interval
indicating that there was a general trend for live weight loss in trial buffaloes
during dry seasons. Similar results were found by Japanese researchers in
Nepal (Hayashi, et al., 2005). The body tissue loss was assumed to be
converted to milk with an efficiency of 84% and milk equivalent energy balance
was estimated to be energy in milk plus positive tissue energy balance or plus
0.84 times negative tissue energy balance (Tyrrell, 2005). A negative balance of
-64 MJ/day starting at day 7 continued until 60 days post partum in low and high
genetic potential cows (Collier, et al, 2005; Crooker, et al., 2001).
Loss in the BW of buffaloes on the hill farms particularly during dry and cold
seasons is a normal physiological phenomenon of animals generally observed
by farmers and researchers (Hayashi et al., 2005). To achieve comparable
data, buffaloes were measured before 0900 hours on both occasions. Similar
timing was used by other researchers for weight measurement (Williams &
Dudzihski, 1982).
Cows in early lactation typically cannot consume enough calories to meet the
energetic requirements of maintenance and copious milk secretion, and
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
122
consequently enter into a state of negative energy balance (Baumgard et al.,
2006). During this study, apart from animals’ physical limitations, advancing
days were colder and drier, and available feeds were poor in nutrition and
digestibility. The energy value of body tissue mobilised is about 20 MJ/kg LW
(MAFF, 1975) and hence 0.647 kg of buffalo tissue is estimated to have been
mobilised each day in buffaloes eating a diet of Ficus.
6.4.4 Dietary crude protein and secondary metabolites
Crude protein (CP) concentration of Artocarpus, Ficus and straw, respectively,
was 125, 97 and 37 g/kg DM (Table 6.5). The CP content of Artocarpus was
within the range of 122 -131 g/kg DM reported from eastern Nepal (Panday &
Nösberger, 1985), but that of F. glaberrima was lower than the 101 -114 g/kg
DM reported by Wood et al., (1994) for the months of January and February
1991. Similarly, CP concentration of straw was lower than the 41 g/kg DM
reported by Bhuiyan et al., (2003). Below about 60 g/kg dietary CP which is a
threshold, urinary nitrogen is vanishingly low, most of it recycling and ending up
in faecal nitrogen (van Soest, 2006).
The minimum CP diet concentrations required for effective rumen function were
estimated using Indian feeding standards for buffalo (Paul et al., 2002).
Generally, CP concentration in the diet fed to lactating buffaloes was not
sufficient to meet requirements. Artocarpus with 125 g CP/kg DM was good
enough to over-supply the CP requirement, however, that will not be available
during the true dry season. Generally, buffaloes were in CP deficit 15 %
throughout the periods except for 20 days when buffaloes were eating 8.42 kg
DM of Artocarpus that was supplying 1059 g of CP. This was a 246 g excess of
CP over the 813 g CP requirement (8.42 kg x 125.53 g CP /kg DM of
Artocarpus). Untreated straw having crude protein level 30 to 40 g/Kg DM
initially could be improved to have potential crude protein levels of 70 to 90 g/Kg
DM after treatment, which is normally considered the minimum necessary in the
diet for adequate intake, digestive activity of micro-organisms and maintenance
of live weight (Chriyaa, et al., 1997). Below 70 g kg CP in the diet, forage intake
declines because protein needs of the rumen microbes are not satisfied
(Chriyaa, et al., 1997). Table 6.5 shows that only leaves of Artocarpus and
Ficus had CP above the limit of 70 g kg DM; buds, figs and straw have less than
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
123
7% CP. In this study the straw diet was supplemented with 47% of Ficus, which
has a CP concentration 2.6 times higher than that of straw. This was found to
improve digestibility of the straw diet hence there was no significant difference
(P=0.31) between MJ ME/kg DM values of Artocarpus, straw and Ficus (Table
6.5).
MFT are a cheap source of protein and energy for ruminants. However, though
the utilization of dietary protein may be enhanced by the presence of low
concentration of polyphenolics (tannins) high tannin concentration may inhibit
forage intake (Barry & McNabb, 1999; D. Subba, 2001).
Artocarpus and Ficus are reported to have less than 5% tannin but its nature in
these species is not known. Phenolic compounds which include lignin and
tannin are quantitatively the most important anti-nutrients present in tree fodder
leaves and are considered to limit voluntary feed intake, digestibility and nutrient
utilisation (Khanal & Subba, 2001). Animals feeding on MFT twigs may have
adverse effects in terms of DMI and metabolic functions due to effects arising
from commonly occurring secondary plant metabolites (Jackson & Barry, 1996;
Melaku, et al., 2004). Increasing concentration of condensed tannins (CT) in
Lotus corniculatus and Lotus pedunculatus reduces the rates of solubilisation
and degradation of fraction1 leaf protein in the rumen (Barry & McNabb, 1999).
Subba (1998) reported CT content of Artocarpus and Ficus as being 6 and 4 g
CT/Kg DM respectively, but their quality in terms of extractible, protein bound or
fibre bound/components (Barry & McNabb, 1999), and its effects on diet
digestibility is not known. Willow browse in New Zealand was found to have 30
g of condensed tannin /kg DM and that improved reproduction of sheep (Pitta,
et al., 2005). Study of these effects on Ficus and Artocarpus intake on buffaloes
will be useful.
6.5 Conclusions
It is concluded from this study that ad libitum feeding of Artocarpus, Ficus and
53% straw plus 47% Ficus diets provided satisfactory level of nutrition for Lime
breeds of lactating buffaloes in the hills of Pokhara, Nepal. But buffalo on the
Ficus diet were in substantial energy deficient. DMI of 8.42 kg for Artocarpus,
7.17 kg for 53% straw plus 47% Ficus and 6.39 kg for Ficus /buff/day indicated
Chapter 6 Exp. 4 Evaluation of multipurpose tree fodder for lactating water buffaloes
124
the preferred order of diet based on the amount eaten. The Ficus and
straw/Ficus diets offer a source of fresh forage in the dry season supplementing
the basal diet of rice straw with Ficus was found to substantially raise the
energy value of the mixed diet to an energy level equivalent to that of
Artocarpus. It is, therefore, recommended to supplement straw diet with about
50% Ficus browse and it is recommended to conduct further trials to evaluate
varieties of F. glaberrima at different levels of feeding. A diet of 50:50
Straw:Ficus, with (unboiled) concentrate supplementation for lactating animals,
would appear to be a good, practical fodder source for Nepalese small farmers.
The proven MFT F. glaberrima is adapted to local conditions and is well
accepted by buffalo and by subsistence farmers. Therefore, its use will help to
avoid over-reliance on a few MFT species like A. lakoocha.
Chapter 7 Exp. 5 Vegetative propagation of F. benjamina
125
CHAPTER 7
Vegetative propagation of F. benjamina using nonsterile
sand and hardwood cuttings
(As published in the Proceedings of New Zealand Institute of Agricultural &
Horticultural Science; Agronomy Society of New Zealand, NZ Society of Plant
Physiologists; Wednesday 22 to Friday 24 June 2005; Lincoln University,
Canterbury, New Zealand)
By Bhoj Bahadur Kshatri1, Peter D. Kemp1, John Hodgson1 N. R. Devkota2;
Institute of Natural Resources, Massey University, Palmerston North New
Zealand1; Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS), Rampur,
Tribhuwan University, Nepal2 (correspondence bhojkster@gmail.com)
7.1 Introduction
Ficus species are multipurpose trees well adapted to harsh mountain terrain
and used by rural populations as an evergreen source of fodder for ruminant
livestock, for fuel and shade, as well as for ecological conservation in Nepal
(Kshatri, 2001), and in the Sahelian and Sudanian zones of Africa (Danthu, et
al., 2003).
F. glaberrima and F. benjamina are both known as epiphytes or strangling fig
(Starr, et al., 2003). F. glaberrima is a sub-tropical tree, found in the Himalayan
foothills ( Corner, 1978), where it is used for fodder, fuel, erosion control and
minor industrial purposes (Maithani, et al., 1987). In Thailand, it is used as a
framework tree (Elliott et al., 2003). F. benjamina is present in New Zealand
(NZ) where it is an indoor plant but F. glaberrima has never been recorded in
NZ. Because only one species is available in NZ and the research is aimed at
Nepalese and similar farmers, F. benjamina was used to develop appropriate
propagation technology.
Although vegetative propagation is a basic method for mass scale production of
cuttings, vegetative propagation of F. benjamina has not been extensively
studied (Danthu et al., 2002). Micro-propagation techniques (Joshee et al.,
Chapter 7 Exp. 5 Vegetative propagation of F. benjamina
126
2002; S. B. Rajbhandary, 1992) advanced by the western world are practically
useless for remote areas in Nepal, Bhutan and similar areas where there are
no electricity and irrigation facilities. Therefore, there is a need to develop
practical propagation methods, by combining indigenous technical knowledge of
local farmers and relevant scientific information. Nepalese farmers require a
hardy and healthy sapling that needs relatively limited care after planting for
reforestation of the mountain ecosystem. Selection of species, hardening of the
saplings produced and raising them to a stage of transplantation and
establishment is challenging.
Previous experience found that larger size cuttings with more than 15 leaves
performed poorly. The objective in this study, which formed part of a project on
the establishment and management of F. glaberrima in Nepal, was to develop
an effective propagation method.
7.2 Material and methods
Treatments were 100% unwashed river sand (S), 100% commercial medium
(CM) and a 50:50 mixture of the two (M). Particle diameter in the sand was 70%
<2 mm and 30% 2-5 mm diameter; no fertilizer was added and the sand was
not sterilised. The commercial medium was formed from composted pine bark
with added lime, dolomite and osmocote (100 gm, 300gm, and 150 per 100 gm
bark respectively).
A randomised complete block design (RCBD) with three treatments and three
replications with 16 cuttings per plot was used for the experiment.
7.2.1 Preparation of cuttings
F. benjamina leaves, bark and wood contain milky sap, which oozes out during
twisting, breaking and cutting. To avoid stickiness while preparing the cuttings,
the sap was washed off by immersing cuttings in clean water immediately after
branches were cut from the trees. This also helped minimise evapotranspiration
stress of cuttings.
A total of 144 cuttings were prepared using trees available at PGU, Massey
University, New Zealand. Three out of 25 trees were randomly selected as
Chapter 7 Exp. 5 Vegetative propagation of F. benjamina
127
mother trees from which the cuttings were taken. In this trial cuttings varied from
20 to 80 cm in length, 2 to 21 branches, and 2 – 100 leaves. They were trimmed
to 22.5 cm length, 2 - 8 branches and 2 – 15 leaves, and were allocated at
random between treatments and replicates.
A single wound was made in the cambium layer of each cutting using a sharp
knife and then treated with 0.3% indolebutyric acid (IBA). Cuttings were
maintained at 20 to 24oC in a controlled temperature heat bed, where the mist
was regulated for a 10 second spray every five minutes throughout the
experiment. Root and shoot growth were recorded 55 days after planting. After
washing gently using a water hose total root numbers on a cutting were
counted, and the longest root in a cutting was measured. Retention of older
leaves and the growth of new leaves on a plant was also recorded.
7.2.2 Statistical analysis
The general linear model (GLM) of Statistical Analysis System was used to
perform analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means were compared (SAS
version 8.2, 1999-2001). Unless otherwise stated, statistical significance was
tested at the 5% level (P <0.05).
7.3 Results
There was no difference in the number of roots per cutting for the three
treatments. Also, there was no difference in old leaf retention per cutting. M and
CM treatments had significantly greater root length per cutting than S and
production of new leaves was approximately three times greater in M and CM
than S. Root length and emergence of new leaves were in the order of
CM=M>S (Table 7.1).
Chapter 7 Exp. 5 Vegetative propagation of F. benjamina
128
Table 7. 1 Effect of sand (coarse and non-sterilised S), commercial plant growth
media (CM) and 50% mixture of sand and commercial media (M) on
root and shoot growth of F. benjamina cuttings in a glasshouse.
Root growth Shoot growth
Plant growth
media
Live Root Number Root
length
(mm)
Retained leaves
(no)
New leaves
(no)
S 10.8 5.3b 2.71 1.18b
M 9.5 7.8a 3.31 3.18a
CM 9.3 6.9a 2.58 3.00a
LSD 5% 1.6 1.27 0.73 0.65
SEM 0.5 0.45 0.26 0.23
P- value 0.1318 0.0007 0.1128 0.0001
Note: Means within a column with the same letter were not significantly
different.
7.4 Discussion
Rates of root and leaf development were clearly better on cuttings growing in
commercial medium than in sand (Table 7.1), but there was no difference
between treatments in the number of surviving roots and leaves and no
difference in cutting survival. There is a strong correlation between number of
roots and survival of plants (Ahmed et al., 2003)
Survival of F. benjamina hard woodcuttings was 26 % during an initial trial,
whereas in this trial survival was 93 %. It is not clear whether the apparent
growth advantage of cuttings in commercial rooting medium reflected the effect
of medium structure (Navatel & Bourrain, 1994), nutrient supply (Dick et al.,
2004) or avoidance of pathogens (Preece, 2003) Automatic misting assists
moisture maintenance in sand and farmers would need to water regularly and
shade the cuttings.
In conclusion, coarse and non-sterile sand is effective as a low cost alternative
medium for rooting of F. benjamina cuttings. Minimising the size and the
number of leaves will reduce the leaf surface area on cuttings to be propagated,
which will enhance the survival rate.
Chapter 8 Exp. 6 Leaf survival and biomass production
129
CHAPTER 8
Leaf survival and biomass production of F. benjamina
containerised in a glasshouse
8.1 Introduction
In comparison to deciduous species, evergreen plants have a lower leaf nutrient
content and a larger leaf life span, important mechanisms for nutrient economy,
allowing the colonization of low fertility soils (Haddad, et al., 2004). To include
the MFT into feed budgets, a method is needed to estimate the edible forage
yield of the tree (Kemp et al., 2003). Chapter 7 described the low cost
propagation media for F. benjamina while this chapter describes the effect of
those media (Chapter 7) on leaf age and biomass production of F. benjamina in
a glasshouse during a subsequent establishment period of two years.
The age of a leaf affects animal nutrition (Karachi et al., 1997). For example, the
leaves and immature fractions of L. leucocephala were higher in nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium and digestibility but lower in calcium, magnesium and
fibre than older leaves (Karachi, 1998). Similarly, there was a reduction in
nitrogen and potassium levels with increasing leaf age (Julian, 1979). F.
benjamina, a multipurpose fodder tree (MFT) in the tropics lives for over a 100
years but its leaf age is unknown. Leaf age affects growth rate and the feed
quality of the leaves (Mooney & Gulmon, 1982). Long lived leaves tend to be
more fibrous and higher in secondary chemicals than short lived leaves (Baas,
1982). Information on age of MFT leaves is important to farmers, researchers
and planners but limited information is available on leaf maturity and leaf
chemistry (Garcia et al., 1996). While leaf age related leaf chemistry was
beyond the scope of this study, the objective here was limited to measurement
of the age of F. benjamina leaves on young trees in glasshouse conditions and
also estimation of biomass by destructive sampling.
8.2 Material and methods
The following three rooting media were used during propagation of the F.
benjamina cuttings on 5 December 2003 and 19 January 2004.
Chapter 8 Exp. 6 Leaf survival and biomass production
130
CM = Commercial media only (0 % sand); M = Mixture 50% sand and 50%
commercial media (Mix); S = Sand only (100% sand).
See chapter 7 for details of media, pots and glasshouse conditions at Plant
Growth Unit PGU), Massey University, New Zealand.
8.2.1 Leaf senescence
Leaf age was monitored for 26 months from 21 August 2004 to 25 September
2006 using a randomised complete block design (RCBD) to measure the effect
of: 1) 100% non-sterile sand, 2) a mixture of 50% sand and 50% commercial
media, and 3) commercial media on leaf senescence and biomass production.
A total of 1440 leaves, (1440 leaves = 10 leaves per tree x 16 trees per plot x 9
plots = 144 trees in total) with 480 leaves per treatment (160 x 3 replicated
plots) were marked using a permanent marker and any fallen leaves were
collected and recorded over a period of 910 days.
Plate 8.1 Transplanting to 20-litre bucket.
Chapter 8 Exp. 6 Leaf survival and biomass production
131
Plate 8.2 Marking the leaves for the leaf age study
Arrangements were made to compare the biomass production of trees grown in
and outside the glasshouse. For this purpose 48 trees were kept outside the
glasshouse. Plants propagated by cuttings on 5th December 2003 were grown
inside the glasshouse for 15 months until 2 April 2005 when they were put
outside the glasshouse exposing F. benjamina plants to the weather outside of
the glasshouse at Plant Growth Unit (PGU), Massey University, New Zealand,
but plants were still in containers. The plants were allowed to grow until the age
of 30 months when five plants were randomly selected for destructive sampling.
8.2.2 Statistical analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA SAS version 9.1) and logarithmic regression
(SigmaPlot) were used. Pearson correlation coefficients were analysed to
compare the tree height, canopy, basal diameter, leaf dry matter (DM) branch
DM, root DM and number of leaves per tree.
8.2.3 Biomass production
Destructive sampling was used to estimate biomass production of F. benjamina
trees grown inside and outside the glasshouse. A total of 20 trees, (five trees
from each treatment and five trees from outside the glasshouse) were randomly
sampled and separated into leaves, branches and roots. They were oven dried
at 60 ± 3o c for 7 to 10 days until a constant weight (AOAC, 2000a).
Chapter 8 Exp. 6 Leaf survival and biomass production
132
8.3 Results
There were still 52 leaves (3.6 %) intact on 25 trees (17.36 %) out of the 1440
leaves originally marked on 144 trees after 910 days of observation. When
leaves were marked on 21 August 2004, there were 2.71 leaves per tree intact
on each tree (Chapter 7). There were 13, 6 and 6 plants in each treatment with
25, 14 and 13 leaves remaining intact on them indicating up to 3.6 % of leaves
could survive longer than 910 days.
ANOVA results showed that there were no significant differences existed
between number of leaves measured on 21 August 2004, 3 March 2005, 13
June 2005, 22 Oct 2005, 21 May 2006 and 25-Sept 2006 (Figure 8.1).
However, the senescence rate was significantly (P= <0.0001) affected by
treatment during the first 33 months of plant life (Cuttings were planted on 5
December 2003 and final leaf recording was done on 25 Sept 2006 = Figure
8.1, Table 8.1).
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Days
Leaf survival % out of 10
leaves/tree
Predicted CM CM Predicted Mix
Mix Predicted Sand Sand
Figure 8.1 Leaf survival rate of evergreen tree F. benjamina over 910 days in
glasshouse conditions.
Significant differences on the rate of leaf fall between plants, grown using
different media and measurement dates. Results clearly shows that leaf fall
starts at 400 days and the rate of fall accelerates until 700 days. Fifty-two
leaves remained even 910 days after marking.
Chapter 8 Exp. 6 Leaf survival and biomass production
133
Table 8. 1 Standard deviation and significance of leaf survival rate (Figure 8.1)
21 August
2004
3 March
2005
13 June
2005
22 Oct
2005
21 May
2006
25-Sept
2006
No. of Days 210 425 510 630 810 925
SD ± 0.00 0.00 2.50 2.1 1.4 1.01
Significance 0.00 0.00 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.36 0.185
There were 100 % leaves intact on trees until 450 days after marking in all
treatments. Logarithmic regression analysis showed the highest rates of leaf fall
started on day 515 (R2 = 0.97), day 550 (R2 = 0.95) and day 588 (R2 = 0.99)
after marking on plants grown on CM, M and S media respectively (Table 8.2).
Leaves therefore lived for over 500 days under greenhouse conditions.
Table 8.2 Leaf survival rate (slope of leaf fall/day) for F. benjamina growing in
three media in pots in a glasshouse.
yCM = 10.32/1+exp0.026*(x-515.21), R2 = 0.97 (1)
yMix = 10.46/1+exp0.014*(x-550.03) , R2 = 0.95 (2)
ySand = 10.21/1+exp0.017*(x-588.45) , R2 = 0.99 (3)
Treatment Rate or leaf fall /day(slope) SE
CM 0.026a ± 0.0093
Mix 0.014b ± 0.0052
Sand 0.017ba ± 0.0022
Means with the same letter are not significantly different.
8.3.1 Height, canopy and basal diameter
Table 8.3 Height, canopy diameter and basal diameter of F. benjamina trees.
Tree measurement (mm)
Treatment Plant Height Canopy diameter Stem basal-diameter
Outside 904c 762b 22b
CM 1204b 1028a 31a
Mix 1430a 1130a 31a
Sand 1274ba 1064a 31a
SE ± 56.39 60.9 1.0
Significance (P= 0.05) <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001
Means with the same letter are not significantly different.
Chapter 8 Exp. 6 Leaf survival and biomass production
134
Stem diameter were significantly greater for plants grown in different media
inside the glasshouse than outside glasshouse (Table 8.3). Significance is only
due to inside/outside comparison. There is minimal difference between media
inside.
8.3.2 Biomass and leaf number
Table 8.4 Biomass production (g DM/tree) in glasshouse conditions.
Biomass (g DM ) Treatment Number of
leaves Leaves Branches Roots
Outside 845c 84b 99b 94b
CM 1759b 247a 275a 262a
Mix 1971ba 249a 307a 320a
Sand 2256a 247a 286a 291a
SE ± 102 5.77 16.3 21.46
Significance (P= 0.05) <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001
Means with the same letter are not significantly different.
Biomass production per tree (g DM/tree) was significantly different between the
plants grown inside the glasshouse and outside of it (P=<0.0001). Number of
leaves were significantly higher on the plants propagated using sand media
(Table 8.4, P=<0.0001) and grown inside the glasshouse. However, there was
no significant difference between DM production of leaves, branches and roots
of plants grown inside the glasshouse (Table 8.4).
Table 8.5 Pearson correlation coefficient among variables measured on F.
benjamina. Levels of significance are indicated in italics.
Height Canopy Basal
diameter
DM leaf DM branch DM roots Number
of leaves
Height 1.0000 0.677 0.75 0.8 0.78 0.74 0.67
0.001 0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0002 0.001
Canopy 1.0000 0.73 0.78 0.82 0.81 0.71
0.0002 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0004
Basal diameter 1.0000 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.75
<0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.0001
DM leaf 1.0000 0.94 0.9 0.89
<0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001
Chapter 8 Exp. 6 Leaf survival and biomass production
135
DM branch 1.0000 0.94 0.89
<0.0001 <0.0001
DM roots 1.0000 0.87
<0.0001
Number of leaves 1.0000
Correlation coefficients (R2) ranged from 0.67 to 0.94 among the tree
components examined. Strong correlation existed between branch and leaf DM
followed by branch and root DM (R2 =0.94). Similarly, moderately high
correlation (R2 = 0.67) existed between height and canopy diameter and height
and number of leaves (Table 8.5),
8.4 Discussion
This discussion mainly deals with the leaf survival and the small effect of plant
growth media on leaf fall of evergreen F. benjamina studied under glasshouse
conditions.
F. benjamina (var = benjamina) was clearly an evergreen tree species with no
leaf fall occurring until 450 days (well over one year) from marking, and 3.6% of
marked leaves beyond 910 days. Evergreen species commonly retain leaves
for one to many years (Mooney & Gulmon, 1982) ensuring year round supply of
fresh and nutritious leaves for herbivory. In this study Ficus leaves typically
survived nearly 3-times longer than those of deciduous Artocarpus, poplar or
willow. However, when a leaf is matured, and lignified, it becomes harder to
browse and digest (Karachi, 1998).
Deciduous tree leaves generally have higher photosynthetic capacity than
evergreen leaves, but there is a year-round photosynthesis in evergreen leaves
(Mooney & Gulmon, 1982). Dry matter addition to the leaf is continued even
after full leaf expansion (Mooney & Gulmon, 1982).
Leaf survival rate as an indicator of rate of leaf fall per day is given in equations
(1) to (3) in Table 8.1. There was a strong correlation between plants grown on
different media and rate of survival of leaves (Table 8.3). Leaf survival rate
increased with increasing moisture (Bargali, 1997). Highest rate of leaf fall
Chapter 8 Exp. 6 Leaf survival and biomass production
136
0.026 ±0.0093, 0.014 ±0.0052 and 0.017 ±0.0022 leaf/tree/day started at 515,
550 and 588 days after marking for CM followed by M and S grown trees
respectively.
Based on the leaf phenology four plant function types are recognized (1) semievergreen,
(2) <2-months>4-
months – deciduous. F. benjamina is a true evergreen and does not fall in any
of the above four categories. Rapid recruitment of leaf crop in the shoots, longer
leaf life-span, and access to ground water due to deep roots are some of the
advantages the evergreens had over deciduous trees (Negi, 2006).
8.5 Conclusions
The senescence rate was significantly affected by plant growth media used
during propagation. No leaf fall occurred until 450 days after marking.
Prolonged age of F. benjamina leaves may result in a higher proportion of
indigestible fibre that could contribute to difficulties in browsing and digestion.
Regular lopping management practice will enhance continuous regeneration of
evergreen leaves, and weekly to monthly proximate analysis of leaves of
different age groups will help better define the nutritional relationship between
seasonal variation and maturity of leaves.
Chapter 9 General discussion and conclusions
137
CHAPTER 9
General discussion and conclusions
9.1 Introduction
Lack of animal feed particularly during the nine months from October to June is
the major problem in the hill-farming ecosystem of Nepal, and planting
multipurpose fodder trees (MFT) could be the solution. A deciduous MFT, A.
lakoocha, is known for its potential to raise the milk quality and quantity in
lactating ruminants. It is preferred by animals, liked by farmers and grows
relatively fast, but has a serious constraint, lacking no leaves when they are
most needed by animals. Evergreen F. glaberrima has grown on farmed land
for generations but its potential as a fodder tree never been scientifically
investigated. To include the MFT in feed budgets, a method is needed to
estimate the edible forage yield of the tree (Kemp et al., 2003). The principal
objective in this PhD research was to evaluate the suitability of F. glaberrima for
large scale planting in degraded hills producing year round a supply of
supplementary nutrition for ruminants.
Following a review of past work on MFT in Nepal, six experiments (Chapter 3–
8) were used to compare and verify the potential of F. glaberrima or the closely
related F.benjamina for forage production and nutritive value in the hill farms.
Projects were presented in the Institute of Natural Resources, Massey
University in New Zealand and at the 5th National Animal Science Convention,
organised by Nepal Animal Science Association (NASA) in Kathmandu, from 15
– 16 October 2003 and comments were incorporated ( Kshatri, 2003).
9.2 Results of the review of past work in Nepal
The literature clearly highlights the chronic lack of dry season feed and its
adverse effects on health and productivity of animals in Nepal ( Pariyar, 2006;
Rajbhandary & Shah, 1981; Rana & Amatya, 2000; Singh, 2000). There is a
convincing need to protect natural plant communities and restore them in
degraded landscapes where reforestation activities need to be guided by sound
principles, practical conservation tools, and clear priorities (Keddy, 2005). In
Nepal, over 250 species of MFT are being used in the eastern region alone
Chapter 9 General discussion and conclusions
138
(Subba, 2001). However, no reports were available on the nutritional potential of
evergreen F. glaberrima as a promising tree for the reforestation of degraded
hills (Kshatri, 2001). A primary objective in this chapter is to report the
implications of the results set out in Chapter 3 -8 principally to the hill farmers,
the planners and the policy makers. To make the results more meaningful, onfarm
evaluation of MFT was based on;
- User farmers’ experience on local MFT,
-Suitability of MFT at 3 ecological strata and the biomass yield,
-Sheep preferences,
-Lactational response of buffaloes eating MFT, and
-Ability of MFT to propagate in low cost sand media and the effect on leaf
age.
9.2.1 User farmers’ experience on local MFT
The objective in Chapter 3 was to encourage the farmers to discuss their
problems in relation to the dry and deteriorating condition of animal feeding
resources, and select the best MFT. This can be done by pooling the
indigenous knowledge they have by means of a focus group workshop (FGW)
for identification, selection and prioritisation of MFT for further research and
planting to provide lasting ecological services to hill farm inhabitants.
Two key findings of the FGW were (1) the top four fodder tree species
prioritised for detailed study are Ficus glaberrima, Artocarpus lakoocha, Ficus
benjamina and Bassia butyracea, selected from 1575 trees belonging to 27
MFT species grown by 30 farmers at the research site, and (2) the identification
of three varieties of F. glaberrima which differ considerably from each other in
terms of visual appearance and seasonal growth of new leaves (early-season=
Maghe, mid-season=Chaite and late season=Jethe).
Farmer’s techniques for selecting MFT were based on their experience, amount
earned from the production of odour-free milk and meat as a response to eating
MFT browse, growth rate of both plant and animal, biomass production, year
round supply of leaves, ease of propagation and lopping by climbing the trees,
hardiness, effect of tree on understorey crops and soil conservation properties.
Chapter 9 General discussion and conclusions
139
9.2.2 Suitability at 3 ecological strata and biomass yield of MFT
Based on the recommendation made during discussions in the focus group
workshop (Chapter 3) with user farmers, three farming habitats each with a
range of 200 m elevation were selected for comparing the biomass production
of A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima. The objective was to compare edible biomass
production of F. glaberrima and A. lakoocha at different altitudes in Kalika-6,
Pokhara Nepal. Those trees lopped for 50 years and expected to keep on
producing fodder for another 50 years’ were randomly selected from high (1200
– 1440 m), mid (1000 to 1200 m) and low (800 – 1000 m) altitudes in western
Nepal and their potentiality (DM kg/tree/year) was compared.
The result of this study clearly demonstrated that F. glaberrima had significantly
higher DBH, CR and DM production than A. lakoocha. Results will serve as a
standard decision tool for examining other alternative tree species in relation to
A. lakoocha and F. glaberrima.
Tree population data (trees/ha) presented here were calculated on the basis of
the radial extension of branches as indicators of the performance of MFT
species at different altitudes. Tree density for F. glaberrima was 61, 98 and 145,
trees/ha and for A. lakoocha was 236, 189 and 222 trees/ha respectively, for
low, mid and high altitude farms (Table 4.8). Likewise, edible browse DM
production per hectare was 9, 10 and 12 t/ha for F. glaberrima and 23, 16 and
18 t/ha for A. lakoocha respectively for low, mid and high altitude farms. The
result is encouraging for the renovation of degraded hill farms in the sense that
even if edible biomass production (kg DM/tree) and plant density (tree/ha) are
reduced by 50%, planting F. glaberrima will still be beneficial to the inhabitants
of the fast degrading agro-ecosystems in Nepal. DM production from natural
pasture or straw production from crop land area in the hill habitat varies from
0.05 to 4.0 t/ha (Rajbhandary & Shah, 1981; Shrestha, et al., 2004). For more
information, see Table 3.2 in Chapter 3. Planting trees is a realistic alternative
to raise the productivity of hill-farm ecosystems.
9.2.3 Sheep preferences
Fodder trees are an integral part of the farming system that provides the low
cost protein and energy sources of ruminants in the hills of Nepal (Subba,
Chapter 9 General discussion and conclusions
140
2001). Intake of browse species can be strongly influenced by preferential
behaviour of animals (Hodgson, 1986, 2004; Prache, et al., 2006; Robertson, et
al., 2006; Smit, et al., 2006).
The main purpose of the trial in Chapter 5 was to evaluate grazing preferences
for tree fodder using Romney sheep as ultimate users of browse. However, F.
gaberrima is not available in NZ due to phytosanitary restrictions (Environment
Risk Management Authority = ERMA, NZ), so it was decided to conduct
research on F. benjamina which is available as a household plant in NZ and
grows well in similar environments to F. glaberrima in Nepal. Poplar (Populus
deltoides x nigra, clone, Veronese) and willow (Salix matsudana Koidz. alba L,
cv Tangoio) were used as the reference base.
Two key findings in this trial were (1) poplar and willow were strongly preferred
to F. benjamina, provided there was a choice. However, given no choices,
intake of F. benjamina, was similar to that of Poplar and Willow. It is concluded
that intake of F. benjamina should not normally be inhibited by palatability
factors (2) There was a strong negative linear relationship [(R2 = 0.729) (across
species and maturities)] between dry matter intake and force applied to tear the
leaves; this may provide a basis for plant improvement work in future.
9.2.4 Lactational response of buffaloes eating MFT
The objective was to compare the DMI (kg/buffalo/day) of buffalo on diets
supplemented with the tree forage, and the corresponding energy balance in
lactating buffaloes to provide guidance on selection of the best MFT for
replanting on degraded hills.
There were three key findings from this project;
(1) Milk supply is needed throughout the year, but it is limited to the feed glut
months of July to October when the majority of calving occurs to natural mating
(Shrestha, 2003). Shrestha (2003) and Rasali (2006) also mention that little
calving occurs throughout the year. For buffaloes calving during the main dry
period of February to June, the evergreen MFT is the only green feed available
to them in remote areas. Milk supply decreases during the dry season owing to
lack of feed (Rasali, 2006). Planting MFT will boost year-round supply of animal
Chapter 9 General discussion and conclusions
141
feed and help to maintain consistency in the milk production and marketing
chain.
(2) Based on a feeding trial using the Lime breed of buffalo (Chapter 6), a
lactating buffalo needs 3073 kg DM/year (DMI 8.42 kg x 365 days). This is
equivalent to the feed produced by 19, 29 and 36 A. lakoocha trees at low, mid
and high altitudes respectively in the existing sparsely planted situation in the
hills of Nepal. A. lakoocha is a deciduous tree and its leaves are not available
for feeding during dry seasons. The only tree species that can provide a year
round supply of fresh and green leaves is F. glaberrima. The only equivalents
member of F. glabirrima trees would be F. benjamina and Bassia butyracea at
low, medium and high altitudes. Up to 47% DMI as F. glaberrima (3.36 kg
DM/buffalo/day) was found to improve the ME of the buffalo diet based on rice
straw to an equivalent level of ME supplied by A. lakoocha. Supplementing the
basal diet of rice straw with 47% of F. glaberrima twigs was found to raise the
energy value of the diet from 5.4%MJ ME /kg DM to 9.41 MJ ME/kg DM, an
energy level equivalent to Artocarpus. Metabolisable energy balance (MJ
ME/day) was greater in lactating buffalo eating A. lakoocha than F. glaberrima,
with the mixed diet intermediate (+1.60, -0.34 and -12.94 MJ ME/buffalo/day
respectively, P=0.0318). The Number of F. glaberrima trees required to supply
3.36 kg DM daily for 9 months ( 30 x 9 months = 270 days) is calculated to be 6,
9 and 11 trees respectively for low, mid and high altitudes. Farmers in the hills
of Nepal are capable of managing those numbers of Ficus and lactating
buffaloes (Chapter 4)
(3) Rice straw is known for its poor nutritional quality, but it is the basic diet on
which hill animals live during dry seasons. In the past various treatments were
applied to improve its quality by treating with urea, ammonia, sodium hydroxide,
steam, pressure or exploded by pressure release, use of acid and white rot
fungi (Van Soest, 2006), but none of these methods have any practical
application for the hill farmers. Supplementing straw with F. glaberrima could be
a practical way to improve the straw based diet. Most low quality fibre sources
can be introduced into dairy rations at modest levels without deleterious effects
(Van Soest, 2006). Forage production for dry season feeding is not yet
Chapter 9 General discussion and conclusions
142
practiced widely in the trial area; however, sparsely planting MFT is a tradition
that helps supplementary feeding.
9.2.5 Ability to propagate MFT on low cost sand media and effect on leaf
age
Methods used to propagate F. benjamina cuttings using coarse sand can be
replicated in Nepal to produce adequate numbers of saplings for renovation
planting. It took 55 days to prepare 30 cm tall saplings with over 2mm stemdiameter
and bearing 20 leaves (Chapter 7). The key finding (Chapter 7) was
that the survival rate of cuttings was over 93%, using relatively simple
propagation techniques so long as the cuttings were trimmed to control the leaf
surface area (Chapter 7) This finding supports other results (Ahmed, 2003), and
provides confidence in the feasibility of simple propagation techniques for hill
farmers.
Leaf, shoot and root proportion (kg DM/tree), of containerised F.benjamina
plants 910 days after planting cuttings illustrates the turn-over of F. benjamina
leaves and biomass production (Chapter 8). No leaves from the originally
marked population fell until 450 days after marking and 52 out of 1440 leaves
were still intact on the trees at 910 days. The rate of leaf fall was affected to a
limited degree by the media used for propagation. Leaf lifespan greater than
one year usually results in means the leaves becoming highly lignified and
containing defence chemicals. As a consequence, nutritive value of the leaves
would be expected to decrease.
Leaves which have high photosynthetic rates generally have high leaf protein
content, and this makes them additionally attractive to herbivores (Mooney,
1991). Grazing can result in premature leaf-fall and extend the "normal" season
and cycle of decomposition beneath a plant, thus increasing the conservation of
nutrients (Owen & Wiegert, 1976).
9.2.6 Storing browse
Climbing a tree for lopping is a daily chore for those farmers keeping ruminant
animals, particularly during dry periods when no grazing or grass for cutting is
available. Climbing a 20 m high tree without a harness is not safe. Trees
become slippery and riskier on rainy days. Lopping 10 days earlier allows trees
Chapter 9 General discussion and conclusions
143
to regenerate leaves earlier. Farmers concern was to reduce the number of
climbs on the trees. Storing of the fresh and green fodder for a week or 10 days
after the lopping date helps to reduce the number of climbs on the trees and
reduce the cost of frequent transport using labour. Storing browse for a day or
two is a common practice among hill farmers, however storing for 10 or more
days had a practical application reducing the number of climbs, which also
helped to reduce the cost of the experiment.
Palatability and nutritional quality of leaves may decrease during storage. Still,
leaves stored for 10 days away from direct sunlight and in a relatively cooler
corner of the shed and sprayed with clean water, are thought to be nutritionally
better than the quality of rice straw, which is the only alternative available during
the dry period. It was experienced that the day time lopping resulting in a faster
drying of leaves leading to leaf drop during transportation. It is better to harvest
and pack MFT during the early hours of the day to minimize moisture loss.
Buffalo and cows eat twigs with leaves, bark, figs and soft wood while feeding in
stall. Samples randomly taken from the browse ready for feeding showed
proportion of leaves 62 and 65 %, bark 14 and 13%, and edible soft wood 24
and 22 % for Ficus and Artocarpus respectively. When figs were abundant
during January 2005, browse samples were analysed for the contribution of figs
to the diet of lactating buffalo, The ratio was 45:14:15:26 for leaves: figs: bark:
edible wood. Fruits of Artocarpus were not available for the same type of
comparison during January in Kalika-6 Sunpadali research site.
9.3 Future research need
Technology generation is the basic need of the subsistence farmers. Livestock
production problems are different in distinct ecological zones. Thus, although
the research reported in this thesis has documented the potential value of
procedures for regenerating and reintroducing MFT species into farming
systems through improvements in seedling establishment, tree management,
and management and nutritive value of browse, there is need for further work to
confirm the value of these improvements over a range of altitudes and
exposures. Nevertheless, F. glabirrima is clearly well adapted to the local
environment and capable of being grown on-farm by subsistence farmers. Its
Chapter 9 General discussion and conclusions
144
large scale planting on degraded hills will help to avoid over-reliance on a few
MFT species like A. lakoocha. Against this background, the following
recommendations are made for future research practice:
Recommendation 1: Four MFT species, identified from indigenous knowledge
(F. glaberrima with its three varieties (Maghe, Chaite and Jethe), Artocarpus
lakoocha, Ficus benjamina and Bassia butyracea) are the best resources for
renovating degraded lands. Ficus varietal differences will allow lopping at
different periods of the year and they were palatable to animals. Research can
now be focused on a detailed study of selected MFT species and Ficus varieties
so that farmers practicing stall feeding with a cut and carry system will benefit.
Recommendation 2: Results obtained and methods used in this study will
enable researchers to better estimate the feeding value of economically viable
but under-utilised multipurpose trees/shrubs. For example; the in vivo DMD of
F. benjamina was 64 %, which is substantially above the 55% DMD limit
required for a species to be recommended for further investigation (Lefroy,
2002). Many species of browse found on farmed land can be evaluated using
these criteria.
Recommendation 3: The result demonstrates the potential value of
supplementing traditional diets with about 50% Ficus browse. Since this first F.
glaberrima feeding trial using a 47% Ficus 53% straw balance is only one
experience, it is recommended that to conduct further trials be conducted to
evaluate varieties of F. glaberrima at different levels of feeding with basal diet of
rice straw.
Recommendation 4: The potential importance of minimizing losses when
establishing new cuttings was demonstrated. The need now is to develop
practical agricultural farm procedures.
Recommendation 5: Proper timing of lopping management practices will
enhance continuous regeneration of evergreen leaves, and regular proximate
analysis of leaves of various life spans, will help to clarify the nutritional
relationship between seasonal variation and maturity of leaves.
Chapter 9 General discussion and conclusions
145
Recommendation 6: Storing MFT browse up to a month using water spray,
shade or in a damp place that reduces evapotranspiration of lopped browse and
weekly examination of the proximate components will help develop storage
techniques practically useful for hill farmers whose only means of keeping
lactating buffalo is in stall-feeding conditions.
Chapter 9 General discussion and conclusions
146
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147
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Appendices
165
APPENDICES
Appendix 1. Intake g DM/Sheep (t1, t2 & t3 represents 576
events of 15 min each)
Appendices
166
Appendices
167
Annex 2. Maps related to the study

Fodder
In agriculture, fodder or animal feed is any foodstuff that is used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such as cattle, goats, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. Most animal feed is from plants but some is of animal origin. "Fodder" refers particularly to food given to the animals (including plants cut and carried to them), rather than that which they forage for themselves (see forage). It includes hay, straw, silage, compressed and pelleted feeds, oils and mixed rations, and also sprouted grains and legumes.
The animal feed industry is a key to supply food for the growing world population, with 635 million tons of feed (compound feed equivalent) produced in 2006 around the world, with an annual growth rate of about 2%. Choice of animal feed can be controversial; some types of feed, such as corn (maize), can also serve as human food, while others such as grass cannot. Some agricultural by-products which are fed to animals may be considered unsavory by human consumers.

Lotus corniculatus
Lotus corniculatus is a common flowering plant native to grassland temperate Eurasia and North Africa. The orthography of the common name is variously given as Bird's-foot Trefoil, Birdsfoot Trefoil, Birdfoot Trefoil, or Bird's Foot Trefoil; it is also known in cultivation in North America as Birdfoot Deervetch.

Medicinal uses of the tree
Prosopis cineraria flower is pounded, mixed with sugar and used during pregnancy as safeguard against miscarriage. Water-soluble extract of the residue from methanal extract of the stem bark exhibits anti-inflammatory properties.
Prosopis cineraria plant produces gum, which is obtained during May and June. The bark of the tree is dry, acrid, bitter with a sharp taste; cooling anthelmintic; tonic, cures leprosy, dysentery, bronchitis, asthma, leucoderma, piles and tremors of the muscles. The smoke of the leaves is good for eye troubles. The fruit is dry and hot, with a flavour, indigestible, causes biliousness, and destroys the nails and the hair. The pod is considered astringent in Punjab. The bark is used as a remedy for rheumatism, in cough colds, asthma. The plant is recommended for the treatment of snakebite. The bark is prescribed for scorpion sting.

Common plants specifically grown for fodder
Alfalfa (lucerne) Barley Birdsfoot trefoil
Brassicas Chau moellier Kale
Rapeseed (Canola) Rutabaga (swede) Turnip
Clover Alsike clover Red clover
Subterranean clover White clover Round hay balesGrass
False oat grass Fescue Bermuda grass
Meadow grasses (from naturally mixed grassland swards)
Orchard grass Heath grass Brome
Ryegrass Timothy-grass Maize (corn)
Millet Wheat Oats Sorghum
Soybeans Trees (pollard tree shoots for "tree-hay")

Types of fodder
Fodder factory set up by an individual farmer to produce customized cattle feedCompound feed and premixes, often called "pellets" or "nuts"
Crop residues: stover, copra, straw, sugar beet waste

Fish meal
Freshly cut grass and other forage plants
Meat and bone meal (now illegal in many areas due to risk of BSE)

Molasses
Oil cake and press cake
Oligosaccharides
Conserved forage plants: hay and silage

Seaweed
Seeds and grains, either whole or prepared by crushing, milling etc
Sprouted grains and legumes
Yeast extract

Health concerns
In the past, mad cow disease spread through the inclusion of ruminant meat and bone meal in cattle feed due to prion contamination. This practice is now banned in most countries where it has occurred. Some animals have a lower tolerance for spoiled or moldy fodder than others, and certain types of molds, toxins, or poisonous weeds inadvertently mixed into a food source may cause economic losses due to sickness or death of the animals.

Sprouted grains as fodder
Fodder in the form of sprouted grains and legumes can be grown in a small-scale environment. Sprouted grains can greatly increase the nutritional value of the grain compared with feeding the "raw" (ungerminated) grain to stock.